Allied Air Power Doctrine: Royal Air Force War Manual; Volume I - Chapter 12: Employment of Air Forces with the Navy

Distribution and Command

1. All military forces in war are normally dependent on aircraft for the performance of certain important duties. An air force contingent, therefore, will always accompany an army in the field.

2. This chapter deals with the general policy of employment for the contingent, more detailed principles and procedure being contained in the R.A.F. Manual of Army Co-operation, A.P.1176. Similar provisions, to give guidance to military commanders in amplification of Field Service Regulations, are contained in the War Office manual entitled " The Employment of Air Forces with the Army in the Field ".

3. The operational units of the contingent will normally comprise bomber, fighter and army co-operation squadrons, and, in certain circumstances, kite balloon sections. Its actual strength and composition will depend on :

(i) The general air situation.

(ii) The nature of the campaign.

(iii) The strength and composition of the enemy air forces.

(iv) The strength of the military force engaged.

4. The number of bomber and fighter squadrons will vary with each campaign. Army co-operation squadrons will generally be allotted on the scale of one for each division (or equivalent formation) and one for each corps headquarters. Normally one army co-operation wing is attached to each corps in the force, and contains all the army co-operation squadrons allotted to the corps. This basis of allotment may be modified as the size of the force increases.

5. The organization of the squadron does not permit of permanent detachments. In an emergency one or more flights may be detached temporarily to assist a force carrying out a special operation, but such flights will soon lose efficiency because the specialist sections, as well as the maintenance arrangements, are organized on a squadron basis and cannot be conveniently divided.

6. The air force contingent will be under the command of the military Commander-in-Chief, who, acting in consultation with the Air Officer Commanding, will be responsible for the policy of distribution of air forces within his command. Normally, the bomber and fighter squadrons will operate directly under G.H.Q. while army co-operation squadrons will usually be placed under the orders of corps headquarters.

7. The Air Officer Commanding the air force contingent is specially appointed to the headquarters of the Commander-in-Chief, and Air Force Headquarters will be located alongside General Headquarters. The officer commanding an air force formation or unit attached to a subordinate military formation is similarly appointed to the headquarters of that formation.

8. The extent and nature of the work required from the air force will be decided by the military commander, in consultation with the air force commander. Orders regarding operations will be issued through the general staff to the appropriate air force commander who will be entirely responsible for the means employed to carry out the tasks allotted to him.

Role of Bombers and Fighters

9. Primarily, bomber and fighter squadrons are allotted to an army in the field to create and maintain an air situation such as will enable the army to achieve its aim without undue interference from enemy air attack.

The successful accomplishment of this duty ensures at the same time that the army co-operation aircraft can devote themselves single-mindedly to their tasks of reconnaissance or other assistance to the army, whilst similar advantages are denied to the enemy. The principles to be applied in this task of attaining air superiority are discussed in chapters VII to X.

10. In addition, such squadrons may be called upon to perform the following duties, appropriate to their type, which are of direct assistance to the military operations :

(i) Reconnaissance of distant areas to obtain information of a strategical nature.

(ii) Attack of military objectives by air bombardment and low-flying attacks.

The principles of air reconnaissance, which apply equally to the acquisition of strategical information by bomber squadrons and to the tasks of army co-operation squadrons, are dealt with in later paragraphs.

Air Bombardment

11. The principles and factors governing the selection of objectives and the attack of ground targets are enunciated in chapters VIII and X, and these principles are in general applicable to air bombardment carried out in connection with military operations.

12. The policy for the employment of bomber aircraft, when assisting the Army to achieve its aim, is the responsibility of the military commander, who will decide, in consultation with the air force commander, on the tasks to be undertaken and where necessary the distribution of effort between them. When the objectives for air bombardment are being selected it will be the primary duty of the air force commander to represent how far the air operations designed to have the most favourable effect on the air situation can be reconciled with the bombardment of those objectives best calculated to further the military aim. It may often happen that it will be possible to select objectives, the attack of which will fulfil both requirements and the air force commander will be responsible for advising the military commander on the extent to which this can be achieved, as well as on such factors as the suitability of objectives for air attack, and the capacity of his available aircraft to engage them effectively, having regard to the nature and location of the target and the opposition likely to be encountered. This last factor, by determining the minimum strength of each bombing formation, may largely affect the possibility of carrying out sustained as opposed to mass attacks.

13. Air attacks on military objectives may be grouped broadly into two classes

(i) Systematic attacks undertaken as part of a plan to achieve a calculated effect.

(ii) Attacks carried out as opportunity offers against targets of a fleeting nature.

14. In the first group the air operations conform to the general strategic plan and the most careful selection of objectives is called for. During the period of concentration and the move forward of the opposing forces, air bombardment may impose considerable delay and disorganization on the enemy. Owing to the intricate system of supply and maintenance of a modern army the successful bombing attack of vulnerable points in this system is more likely to affect the operations of a civilized enemy than the direct bombardment of his columns. (See also chapter VIII, paras. 27-36.)

15. The second group comprises all other operations carried out as opportunities occur against such objectives as headquarters, centres of communication and concentrations or columns of troops and transport, the successful attack of which may cause widespread disorganization and have an immediate effect on the land battle.

16. It will often happen that the more important objectives of this nature will be those which materialise in the course of the battle and of which the significance cannot be determined until the general trend of the operations is known. In these circumstances, therefore, it may be advisable to retain a proportion of the bombing squadrons in hand until suitable objectives have been located by reconnaissance.

17. In certain circumstances, such as in a pursuit or after a break through in static warfare, fleeting targets may be presented of sufficient importance to justify the use of any suitable type of aircraft which is available at the time. Army co-operation aircraft, however, should only be diverted from their normal role in emergency.

Low-flying Attacks

18. Aircraft engaged on low-flying attacks rely chiefly on their speed and manoeuvrability for protection against fire from the ground. Fighters possess these qualities and are the most suitable aircraft for this form of attack. Small and elastic formations may be more effective than single aircraft, since the latter cannot bring to bear a sufficiently heavy attack on a good, but fleeting, target. Moreover, a formation may be less vulnerable to concentrated small arms fire from the ground than is a single aircraft.

19. The moral effect of this form of attack is great, apart from any material damage inflicted, but when directed against troops deployed, especially if they are well trained and equipped and of high morale, it is likely to result in severe casualties among the aircraft engaged and will seldom be justified. The most favourable targets for low-flying attack are presented by formed columns, particularly in defiles, and when the troops are already shaken or demoralised.

20. It should be realised also that the attack of ground targets calls for concentration on the objective, and is not so effective if the pilot has to remain on the alert against attack from the air. It is very important, therefore, that the potentialities of aircraft in low-flying should not lead to a misuse of fighter aircraft, the primary function of which is to participate in acquiring and maintaining air superiority. As a general principle, the more complete the air superiority obtained, the more frequent will be the occasions on which low-flying attacks can be usefully made against ground objectives. When air superiority is still in doubt, fighter aircraft should seldom be diverted from their normal function of securing it. (See also chapter VIII, paras. 37 and 38.)

Air Reconnaissance Aim and Scope

21. Detailed, accurate and timely information about the enemy and the theatre of operations is essential to success in war. Air reconnaissance is one of the principle means by which a commander is able to gain information concerning the movements and dispositions of the enemy and the ground in his occupation. It is a primary function of army co-operation squadrons in the field and is dealt with in detail in the R.A.F. Manual of Army Co-operation, A.P.1176.

22. Reconnaissance is a duty of all fighting troops, and air reconnaissance is used to supplement, amplify and check information obtained by other means. The peculiar and greatest value of air reconnaissance is that information can be obtained of the enemy's disposition in the areas behind their front into which ground reconnaissance is unable to penetrate.

23. In principle, therefore, air reconnaissance is directed to discover the main movements and dispositions of the enemy in rear, which are likely to reveal his plan, and to gain such timely information as will enable the military commander to develop his own dispositions to the best advantage, while safeguarding himself against surprise.

24. The two main factors which seriously affect the operations of reconnaissance aircraft are unsuitable weather and an adverse air situation. Rain and low cloud, while making observation difficult, may afford protection from enemy air attack. Such conditions as fog or falling snow may make reconnaissance by aircraft impossible, but it should be remembered that they also impose a considerable restriction upon the operations of other arms.

25. It is unlikely that the enemy will obtain such mastery in the air or that his ground defences will he so effective as to prevent reconnaissance aircraft from operating. An adverse air situation will, however, make the task of air reconnaissance more difficult. Larger formations may have to be employed and the security afforded by varying weather conditions may need to be more carefully exploited. (See also chapter VIII, paras. 23-26.)

26. In addition to the foregoing, the following points in connection with air reconnaissance should be realized :

(i) Negative information from the air may be misleading. Aircraft cannot force the exposure of an enemy if the latter is determined not to be seen, although troops in concealment may disclose their position by firing on an aeroplane flying low over them.

(ii) It is sometimes difficult to distinguish the enemy from our own troops and it is impossible to identify units from the air.

(iii) Since a single aircraft cannot remain for more than a limited time on patrol, there is a constant change in the personnel engaged in reconnaissance. Careful organization of reliefs is necessary, therefore, if continuous observation of an area is required.

(iv) If the area to be watched is some distance over the enemy territory, involving the employment of formations for protection, continuous observation may be impracticable.

Reconnaissance Areas

27. Reconnaissance areas will be detailed in orders or instructions issued by the military commander. The broad principle upon which reconnaissance duties are divided amongst air force units is that each military commander with reconnaissance aircraft at his disposal is responsible for obtaining information on all matters which primarily affect his own immediate plans.

28. The areas within which subordinate commanders will be responsible for air reconnaissance will vary with circumstances and will, in each case, be defined by the superior commander. The lateral boundaries of these areas will frequently correspond to the frontages of the formations concerned, but the depth will vary with the dispositions of the enemy, the nature of the information required and the capabilities of the aircraft available. Reconnaissance boundaries are always inclusive to both formations concerned and should preferably be features which are recognizable from the air.

Types of A ir Reconnaissance

29. Aircraft will be required to undertake both strategical and tactical reconnaissance. Although it is impossible to define exactly where the one begins and the other ends, it is necessary, for such considerations as control, method of conducting and means of inter-communication employed, to classify and designate air reconnaissance as follows :

(i) Strategical reconnaissance.

(ii) Tactical reconnaissance, which is subdivided into medium, close and artillery.

(iii) Night reconnaissance.

30. In the paragraphs which follow the aim and scope of each type of reconnaissance are outlined, detailed considerations being contained in the appropriate chapters of the R.A.F. Manual of Army Co-operation, A.P. 1176.

31. Strategical reconnaissance is directed to obtain information in the enemy's concentration and base areas, to supplement existing intelligence regarding the strength and composition of the hostile forces and to discover the moves of reserves and material into the theatre of war and from the base areas into the zone of operations. In the opening phases of a campaign especially, this form of reconnaissance may be of vital importance. It will involve long flights over enemy territory and often the penetration of strongly defended zones.

32. Strategical reconnaissance is normally under-taken by day bomber squadrons, under the orders of General Headquarters. Dependent on the weather, the prevailing air situation and the detail of information required, it may be carried out either by single aircraft flying at a great height and relying primarily on the camera for obtaining information and upon evasion for protection, or by formations in sufficient strength to resist the opposition likely to be encountered. Such formations may have to fly at a comparatively low height and, if the weather does not allow of photography, to rely solely on visual observation. Strategical reconnaissance aircraft are equipped with two-way W/T, so that important observations may be reported at once.

33. Medium reconnaissance is concerned with the zone between the strategical reconnaissance area and that covered by close reconnaissance. It will be required to provide more detailed information than can be obtained by strategical reconnaissance regarding the enemy's line of advance, the extent of his front and location of his flanks, as well as railway and road movement in front of his concentration areas. It will be the duty, according to the situation, either of army co-operation squadrons operating under corps or of day-bomber squadrons.

34. Aircraft employed on this duty may have to penetrate to a considerable depth over hostile territory at moderate heights, and it may be necessary to employ formations capable of dealing with air opposition. Whether the aircraft are operating singly or in formation, the camera should invariably be carried on medium reconnaissance to supplement and check visual observation whenever conditions permit. W/T communication is normally maintained with the headquarters of the formation controlling the reconnaissance, so that important movements can be reported when seen, and additional instructions sent to the pilot if necessary.

35. Close reconnaissance is confined to the actual battle zone, and is required to gain information concerning the enemy dispositions and movements in his forward area and the extent of the battle front. In addition, close reconnaissance aircraft may be required to locate the positions reached by our own forward troops. It is undertaken by army co-operation aircraft, working singly, under the control of corps or divisional commanders. In the earlier stages of the battle continuous close reconnaissance will usually be required. If the situation stabilises and the dispositions of the enemy become known, periodical patrols should suffice.

36. As detailed information is required, close reconnaissance has to be carried out from a low altitude, the actual height varying according to the military situation, the tasks allotted and the air conditions encountered. In this connection an important factor may be the strength and accuracy of opposing small arm fire from the ground, which is effective up to an altitude of about 3,000 ft. The normal method of communication for close reconnaissance aircraft is R/T, reports from the pilot and supplementary instructions to him being sent by this means. In the event of R/T failure, or if secrecy is desired, message picking-up and dropping may be resorted to, but these entail a serious loss of time which may only be justifiable in an emergency.

37. Close reconnaissance is required to locate our own forward troops when it is impossible to get this information in the normal manner or when the receipt of such information as the reaching of an objective, for example, is a matter of urgency. It is always desirable that an aircraft should be specially detailed to carry out this task, in which a carefully co-ordinated procedure —discussed in paras. 20 and 21, chapter XIII, R.A.F. Manual of Army Co-operation, A.P.1176—must be followed.

38. Artillery reconnaissance is primarily concerned with the location of suitable targets for the artillery and the direction of fire upon them. It is carried out by army co-operation aircraft under the orders of artillery commanders. Communication from the air to ground is by W/T and from ground to air by a code, indicated by ground strips. The codes used in both methods are part of the Combined Operations Artillery Observation Code (short title Bombardment Code), contained in A.P.1368. The method of conducting artillery reconnaissance and the procedure employed are described in detail in chapter XIV and appendix 8 of the R.A.F. Manual of Army Co-operation, A.P.1176.

39. Artillery reconnaissance is also one of the sources of military intelligence and reports from aircraft on the positions of hostile artillery, enemy concentrations, the development of attacks and other activity, primarily intended for the artillery, are also of considerable value as general intelligence.

40. Night reconnaissance, being subject to peculiar conditions and limitations, is not conveniently included in the foregoing categories, but may be required for the acquisition of strategical or tactical information. Owing to the risk of detection from the air by day, considerable hostile movement may be expected to take place at night. It is, therefore, necessary for aircraft to be prepared to undertake night reconnaissance.

41. At night, visibility varies to a far greater degree than during daylight, and shadows and background play a much more important part. Even on nights of the greatest visibility little can be seen except from low altitudes or with the aid of parachute flares.

42. Night reconnaissance requirements may consist of :

(i) regular patrols over enemy lines of communication in forward areas with the aim of obtaining general information and producing moral effect ;

(ii) special patrols, perhaps to considerable distances, when the situation is such that important enemy night movement is expected.

Army co-operation squadrons are equipped and trained to carry out night reconnaissance, but a squadron operating by day cannot combine sustained night work with a full regular day routine.

Photography

43. Photography forms an important part of air reconnaissance, particularly of reconnaissance at high altitudes. Under favourable conditions a large area of country can be photographed in a short time and the resulting photographs, after annotation and interpretation, form a complete and accurate record of the reconnaissance. The subject of air photography generally is dealt with in the Manual of Air Photography, A.P.1354. Its uses in connection with the Army during the various stages of a campaign and its value to supplement reconnaissance are described in detail in the R.A.F. Manual of Army Co-operation, A.P.1176. They may be summarized as follows :

(i) To supply information of the enemy's rear organization, transportation and supply systems and tactical dispositions.

(ii) To provide material for the revision of existing maps and for the construction of maps in hitherto unsurveyed country.

44. Air photography is subject to the following practical limitations

:(i) It is dependent on light and weather conditions.

(ii) An aircraft engaged on photography, especially for survey purposes, offers the most favourable target to anti-aircraft artillery and hostile air attack.

(iii) Time is taken, after the photographs have been obtained, in developing, printing, interpreting and distributing them. The use of photography for gaining tactical information during battle is there-fore limited.

45. The Air Force is responsible for taking and developing air photographs, while the Army is responsible for their interpretation and distribution.

Orders or Instructions for Air Action

46. Orders for the employment of the air force contingent will be issued either from G.H.Q. to air force headquarters or from the commanders of lower formations to the air force commanders of units allotted to them.

47. In order to enable them to carry out their duties efficiently, air force commanders will be kept fully informed as to the situation, including the courses open to the enemy, his probable action and the intentions of the military commander under whom they are operating.

48. Orders for the bomber and fighter formations may refer to air bombardment, strategical and possibly tactical reconnaissance, and to any special employment of fighters. They are prepared and issued by the general staff in close collaboration with the air staff to give effect to the decisions reached by the Commander-in-Chief after consultation with the Air Officer Commanding.

49. These orders may comprise :

(i) A statement of what it is intended to achieve with the Air Force, and in general terms the tasks to be carried out. This information will normally be included in the body of the G.H.Q. operation order but, when necessary, may be communicated by means of an operation instruction.

(ii) A definition of the tasks in detail, including reconnaissance, photography and bombing as required, giving relative importance of each and, where necessary, the proportion of effort to be employed. This will normally be issued in tabulated form as an appendix to the G.H.Q. operation order.

50. (i) Orders for strategical reconnaissance issued by G.H.Q. will be framed in accordance with the foregoing paragraph and will state the area or localities to be reconnoitred, the information required, the order of priority of tasks and the time and place of reports.

(ii) It will seldom be necessary for G.H.Q. orders for reconnaissance to be given in such detail as in the case of reconnaissance controlled by corps, which is undertaken by army co-operation squadrons and orders for which are dealt with in chapter X, R.A.F. Manual of Army Co-operation, A.P.1176.

51. Unless fighter aircraft are required for a special task such as the attack of ground objectives, details as to their operations will normally be left to the air force commander who will employ them as required in furtherance of the military plan.

52. The Air Officer Commanding or subordinate air force commander, as the result of the operations orders or instructions received from the military commander, issues his own operations orders to his command, detailing tasks and dealing with the manner in which they are to be carried out.

Use of Aircraft for Transport and Intercommunication

53. If suitable aircraft are available and landing grounds exist, small forces of infantry can be flown in a few hours to a focus of trouble several hundred miles away, and in an emergency such a force can be kept supplied after arrival with food, ammunition and other necessaries. In countries where communications are difficult, small columns can be maintained with supplies dropped from aircraft by means of parachutes. The principles to be followed when undertaking these operations are contained in the R.A.F. Manual of Army Co-operation, A.P.1176.

54. When other methods fail or prove inadequate, intercommunication aircraft may be used to convey commanders, staff officers or messages between widely separated portions of the army. This is an uneconomical use of operational aircraft, which should only be employed in cases of urgency.

Kite Balloons

55. When kite balloon sections are provided with a military force in the field, they may be employed to supplement the artillery reconnaissance carried out by army co-operation squadrons. Under favourable conditions, balloons may afford a valuable means of observation, particularly in open country and when visibility is good.

56. For this purpose, balloons have certain advantages over aeroplanes. Observation is not limited to the duration of an aircraft patrol but can be carried out continuously ; a constant watch can therefore be kept on hostile batteries, areas of possible activity and communications. The balloon can also maintain direct telephonic communication to the artillery with which it is required to co-operate.

57. On the other hand, balloons are very vulnerable to air attack, particularly at heights over about 2,000 ft. Their usefulness therefore depends to a great extent on the degree of air superiority which can be obtained. They are also vulnerable to artillery fire which limits the extent to which they can be used well forward at low altitudes.

58. Kite balloons are organized into sections and are usually allotted to corps. Sections can, however, be placed under the orders of divisions and, if necessary, can be allocated to work in co-operation with individual artillery units.