Allied Air Power Doctrine: Royal Air Force War Manual; Volume I - Chapter 5: Movements
General Considerations
1. The movements of air forces in war may be considered under three general headings. These are
(i) By water (sea and inland waters).
(ii) By land.
(iii) By air.
2. Mobility, which implies the power to manoeuvre and act with rapidity, is the chief means of effecting surprise. Rapidity in the efficient movement of air forces will exercise a great influence on the course of an operation, and any failure or miscalculation in the preliminary work of their movement and maintenance will undoubtedly mean loss of time and may result in loss of the initiative.
3. The disposition of the Royal Air Force in peace is arranged to meet, as far as possible, requirements in war.
4. When the policy is recourse to arms the necessary forces are mobilized, portions of which may be sent forward to an overseas theatre of operations.
5. The principles of movement in time of war closely approximate to those of peace, but are of necessity more complicated and require closer supervision. The less the procedure built up in peace calls for variation in war, the greater will be the prospects of efficiency.
6. The first principle of successful movement is the establishment of a system of central control over all transport agencies, which will not only control the use of each individual agency but will co-ordinate the use of the various agencies among themselves.
7. The facilities for the movement of forces in war will rarely be found sufficient to meet all requirements. The object to be attained, therefore, is to make the best possible use of all available facilities.
8. In order to ensure that available facilities may meet, as nearly as possible, all requirements, provisional programmes for the movement of air forces should be prepared and be kept up to date. These programmes should cover not only the initial despatch of air forces, but also their maintenance.
9. The air force equipment staff is responsible for the co-ordination of all air force movements by water and land. They must co-operate with the Movement Staffs of the other services in order to ensure that the resources of the transport agencies are used to the best advantage. Each service is working to the common end and each should render the others all possible assistance.
10. The complicated duties of embarking and disembarking personnel and material can be carried out successfully only so long as perfect harmony exists and coordination is maintained between the services concerned, the duties of the staff of those services having been carefully organised and coordinated beforehand.
11. Except in emergency, the use of transportation facilities for battle purposes, such as for instance an armoured train, or a train or river craft acting as the base for a unit carrying out operations, should not interfere with the technical working of the transportation system.
12. In planning the movement of air forces to an overseas theatre of operations, the following must be considered in relation to the plan of campaign:
(i) Ports of embarkation and places of disembarkation—the relative convenience of available harbours and the existing facilities for rail and road communication towards the zone of operations.
(ii) Selection of the base or bases and the area of concentration.
(iii) The order in which units shall arrive at the base or bases.
(iv) The order of arrival and the distribution of units in the area of concentration.
(v) The security of the base or bases, lines of communication and area of concentration.
(vi) The general system of supply and maintenance before, during, and after concentration, also medical arrangements.
Movements by Water
13. Movements by water will take place :
(i) When air units accompany an expeditionary force to a theatre of operations outside the range of aircraft ; in which case they will usually consist of units carried in, and operated from, aircraft carriers, and units conveyed to a port or place of disembarkation in specially selected ships; or
(ii) When air units accompany an expeditionary force to a theatre of operations within the range of aircraft ; in which case it will usually be better for aircraft to move by air and their stores, workshops, etc., to be conveyed to the port or place of disembarkation in ships.
14. In despatching air force units to an overseas theatre of operations, when the distance exceeds the range of the aircraft or when it is impracticable to move by air, the movement will be carried out by ship. For this purpose aircraft carriers may be available. Should the number of these special ships be capable of embarking the whole force, the aircraft need only be partially dismantled, the movement thereby being simplified.
15. Should it be necessary to despatch a large number of air force units, the employment of merchant ships also will be necessary. Ships having sufficiently large hatches to take aircraft in crates or cases should be selected, as except for short voyages or when climatic conditions are favourable, it is inadvisable to carry aircraft in crates or cases as deck cargo. Under favourable conditions, and provided the ships can be made available, it may be possible to convey partially dismantled aircraft as deck cargo without crates or cases. Special arrangements will be necessary for the shipping and stowing of aircraft, transport vehicles and stores.
16. The order of embarkation of air forces and their distribution on board ship will be governed by considerations of tactical employment on landing and of the order in which their component parts will be required on shore. All personnel and equipment of a unit should, as far as is practicable, be embarked in the same vessel.
17. The principles affecting the movement of air forces by sea will also be applicable to the movement of air forces by inland waters.
18. The navy is responsible for the safe conduct of all forces and stores embarked for operations overseas from the moment they leave harbour until they pass within the defences of the port of arrival or are landed at their destination (where such defences do not exist). The navy, assisted by the air force, also maintains the sea communications of the forces.
19. The Board of Trade is responsible for the pro-vision of commercial shipping to meet the needs of the fighting services. This will entail the assembling and fitting of suitable shipping which is a process which may take ten days to a month or more, according to circumstances.
20. When air forces are acting in co-operation with the navy or army, the movement of all forces will be co-ordinated by the staff of the commander-in-chief of the service primarily concerned. The system of maintenance of such air units to be adopted in any particular instance will he decided by the Air Ministry after consultation with the Admiralty and War Office.
21. It is the duty of the air force authorities to keep the other services and the Board of Trade constantly informed of their probable requirements and any development in material which might complicate the ordinary means of embarkation, disembarkation or transportation generally. The air force authorities in consultation both with the other services and with the Board of Trade should elaborate in peace time arrangements to deal with this matter. Tests and exercises should be carried out to ensure the practicability of methods which it may be proposed to employ.
22. Air operations in conjunction with naval and military forces are discussed in Chapter XIII of this Manual.
23. The general regulations regarding the movement of personnel and material, as to the conduct of the Royal Air Force personnel aboard ship, are laid down in King's Regulations and Air Council Instructions.
Movements by Land
24. Movements by land of the ground organization of air forces in an overseas theatre of operations will normally take place in rear of the fighting troops and, except for long distances, will be made by means of mechanical transport vehicles. Movements over long distances will usually be by means of railways.
25. The movement of air forces in a theatre of operations entails some degree of unreadiness in the forces as a whole. To reduce this state of unreadiness to as low a margin as possible, the movement should be so arranged that only a portion of the whole force is on the move at any one time. The strength and composition of that portion will depend on the general situation.
26. Mechanical transport.—The movement and maintenance of air forces in a theatre of operations call for a large number of transport vehicles from which they can-not be separated for any considerable period without loss of efficiency.
27. Movements carried out too frequently, especially over long distances, tend to reduce the fighting efficiency of air forces. Nevertheless, hostile action may compel air forces to change their location frequently. It is the duty of commanders, therefore, to ensure that all units under their command can move both rapidly and efficiently.
28. Air units employed in co-operation with mobile troops are accompanied by transport vehicles which convey their stores, etc. These units may be required to move frequently and operate from advanced landing grounds, to which the personnel and equipment essential to the immediate maintenance of the aircraft must move forward in light transport at the earliest opportunity. The remainder of the transport may, if necessary, proceed with the divisional trains, but the distance between the aircraft and their transport should be kept as small as possible, as the early reception of stores conduces to efficiency.
29. A normal day's move for an air unit's transport on good roads is about 50 miles. Good moves depend very largely upon the attention paid to road discipline, under which head is included everything that affects the efficiency of both personnel and vehicles during the move.
30. Arrangements should be made for the billeting of units in the neighbourhood of the place in which they will be on the completion of a day's move and for resuming the move the next day from such points. The efficiency of units will be preserved by the provision for their comfort and they will be able to carry out a full day's move.
31. Whenever circumstances allow, having regard especially to the necessity (if it exists) of concealment from air observation, transport should be parked in the order in which it will be required to move off at the commencement of the next move. Mechanical transport power should not be wasted and the resources of the country in regard to billeting should be utilized to the utmost.
32. When air units are on the move, a starting point which the head of the column has to pass at a certain time should be stated in operation orders. If units are not all quartered together it may be necessary to fix more than one starting point so as to enable units to take their place in the column punctually, without confusion and without crossing the line of approach of other units. In the absence of such orders, subordinate commanders must arrange their own movements to the starting point, bearing in mind that too early an arrival at the starting point may cause as much confusion as a late arrival. They must, however, comply with such instructions as may be issued by the commander of the area in which they are quartered.
33. Operation orders for movements by road should also state the method of marking the starting point (if the move begins in the dark) and the approximate time, place and duration of halts. (See Appendix II. to this Manual.)
34. In all movements by day, the possibility of detection and attack from the air should he taken into consideration. When air attack is imminent, it may be necessary to move by night.
35. Railways.—As a rule the conditions affecting railway transport abroad generally, and in particular during a campaign in a country with an ill-equipped or improvised system, are very different from those existing in the British Isles, and the instructions suitable in one case may in many respects be quite unsuitable in another.
36. It is essential that the requirements should he clearly conveyed through one recognised channel (see para. 9) to the railway administration which should then be left to make the best provision possible to meet those requirements. Thereafter efforts on both sides must be directed towards carrying out in a spirit of loyal co-operation the arrangements made.
37. There will usually be a margin within which minor modifications can be made, but it cannot be too strongly impressed on all concerned that failure to adhere strictly to the programme arranged — particularly without due notice to the railway administration — is fatal to efficient railway working, and that the reaction on air force requirements may be serious.
38. Each unit should be despatched as complete as the train accommodation will permit. The mixing of units in the same train should be avoided, provided that train accommodation is not thereby sacrificed.
39. When units are moved by rail, staff officers with representatives of units usually precede them or travel in the first train with a view to making arrangements at the destination before the units arrive.
Movements by Air
40. Whenever practicable aircraft should move by air with as many of the unit's personnel as the type of aircraft will permit. The distance of such movement by air should be arranged not only in accordance with the range and type of aircraft but with a view to ensuring that the aircraft of a unit is not separated from its stores, etc., for a period longer than may be absolutely necessary. Small forces designed to operate for a short period from an advanced landing ground may be moved by means of transport aircraft.
41. Aircraft proceeding to an overseas theatre of operations by air should leave the starting point at such a time as will permit them to arrive at their destination not more than one day ahead of the essential portion of their stores, etc. Movements by air should be carried out in suitable formation.
42. Should an aircraft of a unit proceeding by air be forced to land, this should not delay the unit's arrival at its destination. Information regarding the aircraft concerned should be sent to the nearest R.A.F. station or, if at sea, to the nearest vessel. All pilots must be provided with maps and all the necessary information as to the route to be taken.
43. Movements by air will be detailed in an operation order. Information regarding orders for movement is given in Appendix II. to this Manual.
