US AAC/AAF Doctrine: FM 1-15, Air Fighting, 1940 - 1: Objectives of Air Fighting
CHAPTER 1:OBJECTIVES OF AIR FIGHTING
SECTION I GENERAL
1. AIR FIGHTING.-An air fight is a combat between aircraft, involving fire and movement by the opposing forces engaged. Fighting between aircraft in flight results from or grows out of the attempt to deny air attack and air observation. In air fighting there is no counterpart of the battle between ground forces. Air fighting is incidental to the carrying out of other and potentially decisive air operations. In itself, air fighting is indecisive, except as it affects the success or failure of other technical functions of aviation or ground forces. The permanent effects of air combat are measured in terms of attrition of the forces engaged and reduction in vigor of the enemy's air operations.
2. DEFENSIVELY FIGHTING FORCES.—Air fighting is a hindrance to the performance of the potentially decisive functions of air attack on surface or subsurface objectives. Forces engaged in carrying out air attack functions seek to avoid combat and accept it only when it cannot be avoided. The object of such forces, even when air combat has been imposed upon them, is to persevere in their operations while avoiding losses. As a consequence, forces performing the functions of air attack and air observation only fight defensively in the air. Furthermore, forces designed primarily to carry out these functions normally lack equipment possessing the necessary performance superiority to permit imposing combat on enemy aerial forces.
3. OFFENSIVELY FIGHTING FORCES.--a. Function.--Pursuit aviation is designed primarily for the purpose of imposing air combat on enemy forces. The principal function of pursuit aviation is to offer resistance to enemy air attack and air reconnaissance. Pursuit must perform its role by fighting offensively in the air. To this end it must be equipped with aircraft of superior performance which can initiate and force combat upon the enemy. The primary object of the pursuit force in air combat is to deny or to limit enemy air attack or air reconnaissance. A secondary object may be the support of friendly air attack or air reconnaissance or under appropriate conditions the attack of ground forces.
b. Pursuit versus pursuit.--In situations where opposing pursuit forces are based within reach of each other, air fighting may take place between them. The sole purpose of such combat is as a means to the end of denying hostile air attack and air reconnaissance, or in aiding such operations.
c. Escort fighters.--In situations where air attack is subjected to serious hostile fighter opposition and the range of available friendly pursuit or special fighter equipment permits, a fighter escort may be employed to assist in penetrating the defenses. The object of accompanying fighters in air combat is to insure the success of the forces they support. Their fire power may be considered as replacing or augmenting the defensive fire power of the supported force. Their mission precludes their seeking to impose combat on other forces except as necessary to carry out their defensive role.
4. MEASUREMENT OF SUCCESS.-a. In air combat the success of the offensive fighting force is measured by the loss in efficiency suffered by the enemy force in the performance of its assigned task.
b. The success of the defensively fighting force in air combat is measured by the extent to which its efficiency is maintained in performance of its task of air attack or air reconnaissance.
SECTION II PURSUIT AVIATION IN DEFENSE
5. EFFECTIVENESS.-a. General--A knowledge of the powers and limitations of pursuit aviation is a prerequisite of sound employment. Its capabilities as a means of defense will vary more with respect to the manner of employment than will those of any other defensive agency. Where pursuit aviation is used efficiently a small force may be expected to exert an extraordinary influence in the defense. On the other hand, large forces will accomplish little when they are employed for the defense of localities or sectors that are not susceptible to efficient defense by pursuit aviation.
b. Flexibility.-Pursuit defense is inherently more flexible than other means of antiaircraft defense due to its tactical mobility. It may be applied to some advantage in the defense of any area or objective whenever the other forms of defense are incapable of furnishing the desired degree of protection. The enemy will be able to determine the probable location of antiaircraft weapon defenses and will avoid them, or be prepared for their fire during the relatively brief periods of time that his forces may be exposed to such action. Pursuit, on the other hand, constitutes a threat which may materialize at any time against enemy forces within the pursuit zones of action.
c. Changing tactics.--Pursuit aviation cannot be employed effectively in antiaircraft defense by precisely following definite rules. The hostile air offensive that it opposes is extremely flexible, both in the tactical execution of offensive operations and in the readiness with which the general character of the offensive may be changed. Enemy tactics will vary constantly to meet operating conditions and to circumvent the resistance offered by the defense. The pursuit defense must respond rapidly to changes in the offensive. The action of the enemy must be anticipated and dispositions, methods of employment, and tactics varied accordingly.
d. Moral effect.-Pursuit aviation will have a greater moral effect than the other antiaircraft defenses inasmuch as it brings the threat of actual combat to the enemy. Although it will be impossible for the defender to determine the strength of attacking forces that will be employed in specific operations, the enemy will also be unable to determine the strength of the pursuit forces that may be brought against him. Unless conditions permit the enemy to evade the defending pursuit, he must be prepared to accept combat during the entire time that he is exposed, under conditions wherein the defending force has the initiative.
e. Limitations.-In common with the other forms of anti-aircraft defense, pursuit has limitations that seriously influence its capabilities for coping with the air offensive. Its flexibility is restricted by range and the availability and location of airdromes and facilities. These facilities are in themselves vulnerable to air attack. Pursuit can operate effectively at night only in conjunction with antiaircraft search-lights, and will experience great difficulty in forcing combat upon the enemy where cloud formations are available to him for concealment.
f. Primary purpose.--Pursuit defense is organized primarily for defense against air attack. A defense against air attack will provide incidental defense against other enemy air operations. A pursuit defense for purely counterreconnaissance purposes is generally of insufficient strength to cope with hostile air attack forces.
6. BASIS FOR EFFECTIVE EMPLOYMENT.--a. Defense tasks.-In considering employment of the defensive force, the force commander is confronted with the problem of selecting tasks to be performed in the conduct of the defense. He will be confronted with the allocation of defensive forces for the performance of those tasks. The selection of tasks to be performed by the defense is dependent upon the capabilities of the enemy striking force. Hence the initial problem involves a determination of the capabilities of the enemy striking force and his probable lines of action. The enemy may be expected to attack those physical installations which are immediately vital to us or those which, if destroyed or neutralized, will have the most widespread and lasting effect on our own military operations. The first step, therefore, in establishing tasks for the defense is an analysis of our own situation with a view to determining the elements which are most important to us, and which are most likely to be attacked by the enemy, considering the location of enemy bases and the characteristics of enemy aircraft.
b. Influence of position on defense effectiveness.-The location of a vital element to be defended, relative to the outer limits of the aircraft warning service, has a profound influence upon the capability of the defensive force. Methods of operation of defensive pursuit forces are determined by relative performance of enemy and friendly airplanes and amount of warning time. This factor is in large measure determined by the depth of penetration of the enemy into the aircraft warning service area required to reach the objective. Since the efficiency of the pursuit force varies with the method of employment, and that method varies with depth of penetration into the aircraft warning service area, the efficacy of the pursuit defense will vary with the location of the objectives to be defended and the locations of the defending pursuit forces.
7. SIZE OF PURSUIT COMBAT FORCES.-a. Objective.-The outcome of air combat, like other forms of combat, depends to a great extent upon the relative fire power of the opposing forces. From the standpoint of any particular combat, the larger the pursuit force that is brought against the enemy, the greater are its chances of success. In the defense of any considerable area, however, normally it will be impossible to dispose the defending pursuit in a manner that will insure the presence of a superior fire power in all air combat. The entire defense, however, must be organized on a basis that will provide pursuit combat commands that are strong enough to engage the enemy in air combat. The determination of the size of these air combat commands is a problem that is basic to the whole defense. If the combat commands are unnecessarily large the number of objectives that can be defended will be decreased, or the area over which resistance is offered must be reduced. On the other hand, if they are too small they will be unable to perform successfully their function of air combat.
b. Factors influencing.--The actual size of the combat commands will vary with the pursuit aviation available; the general character of the defense; the relative performance characteristics of friendly and enemy aviation; enemy tactics and defensive armament; and with weather and other conditions that influence the air operations of both forces. Under conditions that favor the employment of the pursuit defense, the enemy may be expected to operate with large attacking forces. Under conditions of low visibility enemy operations may be conducted with smaller combat commands or by individual airplanes. In general, it will be necessary to predict the size of the force that the enemy will probably use in accordance with the existing conditions in order that the defense may be properly prepared. If all the enemy striking force commands are to be opposed, the size of the pursuit combat forces must be reduced when the enemy operates with small combat commands.
c. Influence of armament characteristics.-The relative characteristics of the enemy defensive armament and pursuit armament will exert a considerable influence upon the size of pursuit combat commands. Where pursuit armament has an effective range that exceeds that of the enemy force, individual pursuit airplanes will be able to engage an attacking force with some degree of success, even though numerically inferior to that force.
8. DISPOSITION OF DEFENSES.--The disposition of the pursuit defenses is governed by the enemy capabilities; the size of the pursuit force available; the character and extent of the aircraft warning service; and the number, character, and location of the objectives that cannot be provided adequate security by other means of defense.
SECTION III: PENETRATIONS OF PURSUIT DEFENSE
9. AIR DEFENSE BY AIR ATTACK FORCES.-a. General.--Methods of operations employed by air attack forces in penetrating areas where pursuit opposition is present will vary greatly with the nature of the defense and the condition of the weather. In general, the fighter defense should be approached in a direction that the enemy least expects and in a manner he is least able to oppose. A course of action that will result in the greatest surprise to the enemy aids in gaining security for the attacking force.
b. Formation strength.-For defense in air combat the primary reliance of an air attack command is placed upon its ability to defend itself. Where defensive fire power is an element of special importance in carrying out particular operations, this will be a controlling factor in determining the size of the command to be employed. The defensive strength must not be reduced below a point which will provide reasonable security against enemy fighters. Formation air attacks should always be employed when massed defensive fire power is necessary for security.
10. METHODS OF OPERATION.--The higher commander will plan and direct operations so as to reduce the possible effectiveness of the enemy pursuit defense. These plans may include any or all of the following methods of operation:
a. Coordinated air attacks.---Coordinated air attacks are operations in which several attacking forces are employed to arrive simultaneously within an area defended by hostile fighter aviation. Such operations are designed to prevent the successive engagement of our forces by hostile fighters; to gain surprise; or to produce greater moral effect. Security from the hostile fighting force is also obtained by the mutual support that attacking forces can give one another. In such operations it is impossible for the defending forces to concentrate their full strength against the separate air attacking units.
b. Mass attacks.--Mass attacks delivered by a large concentration of aircraft, operating in suitable tactical formations and arriving over the objective at suitable intervals, will reduce the pursuit opposition that can be directed against successive assaulting waves and will be less costly in casualties than sustained attacks carried out by the small bombardment formations.
c. Repeated attacks.--Repeated air attacks may be made where it is desired to force the enemy to divert enemy fighter aircraft to the defense of the objectives attacked.
d. Secondary air attacks.--Secondary air attacks may be conducted for the purpose of drawing the defending fighters away from a vital objective or for the purpose of causing the enemy to extend and disperse his defenses.
e. Night attacks.-Night attacks provide an effective means for minimizing enemy fighter opposition and are generally conducted against targets that can be effectively bombed by available equipment under the visibility limitations of night operations. It is relatively easy for attack forces to evade the pursuit defense forces under cover of darkness. They will be rarely discovered by hostile fighters unless the latter are assisted by searchlights adequate both in numbers and illuminating power.
