US AAC/AAF Doctrine: FM 1-15, Air Fighting, 1940 - 4: Air Tactics of Pursuit Aviation

CHAPTER 4 AIR TACTICS OF PURSUIT AVIATION

SECTION I: GENERAL

21. TACTICAL FUNCTIONS.--Pursuit aviation is designed and created for the primary function of air fighting. It is, therefore, provided with aircraft characterized by high speed, maneuverability and rate of climb, and strong fire power.

22. AIRPLANE TYPES.— a. Pursuit aviation is provided with special aircraft types for the execution of specific missions.

(1) Interceptor.-The essential performance characteristics of interceptor type airplanes are high rate of climb and speed. They carry armament capable of causing the destruction of bombardment aircraft. The fuel capacity is restricted to attain high rate of climb and speed, hence the radius of action is limited. Several subtypes may be required to insure maximum suitability of equipment for the various tasks of antiaircraft defense, such as local defense, general defense, pursuit versus pursuit action, and for special operations in direct support of ground forces.

(2) Multiseater fighter.--The essential military characteristics of the multiseater fighter type airplane are long range, high speed, and strong fire power. Its characteristics are governed by the requirements for long range patrol, interception and sustained air combat, and special support for bombardment formations. For the latter purpose it must possess strong defensive fire power. Subtypes may be required for the effective escort of the various types of bombers. The multiseater fighter will be generally inferior to single seater pursuit in rate of climb, speed, and maneuverability.

b. The great difference in the military characteristics between the pursuit interceptor type airplane and the multi-seater fighter type makes tactics and methods of operation peculiar to each type. The multiseater fighter is a newly created type for which combat tactics have not been evolved. The development of effective tactics for the operations of this type is contingent on their availability for tactical flying tests. For this reason where this type is treated in the following pages of this manual it will always be referred to as "multiseater" and will not be included in the generic term "pursuit."

SECTION II: PURSUIT FORMATIONS

23. PURPOSE.--The purposes of the pursuit formations are

a. To obtain a concentration of fire power.

b. To permit application of this concentration rapidly in any direction or manner.

c. To maintain tactical control in all situations.
 

24. TACTICAL REQUIREMENTS.--In the arrangement of a pursuit formation, it is important that sound tactical principles be observed so that the formation may effectively serve its purpose.

a. The formation should possess a sufficient degree of flexibility to permit rapid change to meet varying conditions.

b. Simplicity of arrangement, signals, maneuver, and control is essential. It should be possible for each pilot to maintain his position by guiding on only one airplane so that he will be free to deliver individually aimed fire in an assault.

c. Pursuit formations must have sufficient maneuverability to enable them to gain and retain the advantage of position in offensive air fighting, and to interpose themselves between an attacker and the formation they support in defensive fighting.

d. Pursuit formations must be readily controllable. This requirement is effected by indoctrination, visual signals, or radio. In elements, flights, and squadrons, control is further exercised by direct leadership. Control of the group formation is treated in paragraph 52.

25. OFFENSIVE OR DEFENSIVE.--Pursuit formations may be either offensive or defensive. They may be echeloned either in depth, in altitude or laterally, or in any combination of these.

a. Single-seater.--(1) The formations employed by single-seater pursuit are designed primarily for offensive air combat and for this reason are sufficiently extended to facilitate freedom of maneuver for all subordinate units of the formations.

(2) When a formation of single-seater pursuit is opposed by fighters superior in performance or numbers, it may sometimes be desirable to assume and maintain a compact formation as long as possible in order to avoid the risk of being broken up and attacked in detail.

b. Multiseater.--The multiseater formation operates both offensively and defensively. As with single-seater pursuit, the offensive formation is sufficiently extended to provide subordinate units the freedom of maneuver essential for the delivery of offensive fire. Defensive formations are sufficiently compact to provide for the requisite massing of defensive fire.

26. COMPOSITION.--a. In organizations equipped with in-interceptor type aircraft, the element, consisting of two or three airplanes, is the basic air unit. The flight, consisting of two or three elements, is the largest unit that can operate efficiently under the direct leadership of an individual.

b. In organizations equipped with multiseater fighter type aircraft, the flight, consisting of two or more airplanes, is the basic air combat unit. The flight is the largest unit that can operate efficiently under the direct leadership of an individual.

c. The squadron formation, consisting of three flights, is the largest unit that can be directly controlled by an individual as a combat command. Control of the flights within the squadron formation is effected through the flight commanders by coordination and liaison.

d. Formations of groups, when required, are created by the coordinated employment of the requisite number of squadron formations.

27. STRENGTH.-The strength of formation to be used depends upon

Mission.

Strength of the enemy.

Type of airplane and armament available.

Character of the enemy (bombardment, pursuit).

Weather conditions.
 

28. TYPEs.--a. The element is the basic formation. The designation applied to the basic types of formations now in standard use by interceptor pursuit organizations derives from the disposition of individual airplanes within the element. The designations are

(1) Three-ship V (fig. 1).

(2) Three-ship stagger (fig. 2).

(3) Two-ship element (fig. 3).

(4) String (fig. 4).
 

b. Close formations are those formations in which the airplanes are too close for tactical work. They are used primarily for drill.

FIGURE 1.--Three-ship V.

FIGURE 2.--Three-ship stagger.

FIGURE 3.--Two-ship element.

FIGURE 4.--String

c. Open formations are those in which the airplanes are spaced far enough apart to allow the pilots freedom of maneuver while remaining within close supporting distance of their element leaders. Elements and flights are within immediate supporting distance of the other elements and flights.

d. Extended formations are those in which the subunits are beyond support of each other but are still under tactical control. Adjacent units maintain visual contact at all times. This type of formation is used for combat patrols and for search.

SECTION III: COMBAT TACTICS

29. GENERAL.--a. In the performance of its defensive mission in antiaircraft security, pursuit aviation in all circumstances adopts the most strenuous tactical offensive. Combat tactics are based on the infliction of the maximum casualty effect upon the enemy forces with minimum losses to its own forces.

b. In the direct defense of other aviation forces, pursuit provides security by escort. Combat tactics are based on providing the freedom of action required by the escorted force in the execution of its mission.

30. PHASES OF COMBAT.-a. Approach to combat.-The approach to combat has a greater influence on the result of the combat than any other phase of operations. Surprise affords a tremendous advantage. Approach to attack from the most vulnerable or blind sector of the hostile formation confuses the enemy as to the proper counteraction to be taken. Fighter pilots must be thoroughly familiar with the military characteristics and most vulnerable sectors of enemy aircraft and formations. When the enemy is sighted, the attack or the maneuver for attack position should be initiated without delay.

b. The combat.-The combat must be carried out with speed and determination. The first blow is very important. Sustained fire beginning at ranges where effective fire or hits may be reasonably scored and continued through to close ranges is most effective. Every effort is made to maintain the organization of the force and prevent the development of the engagement into a melee of individual combats.

c. Exploitation or withdrawal.--Determined effort is made to take advantage of any confusion and dispersion of the enemy force which may result from the initial assault. If the assault has been indecisive or unfavorable, a withdrawal is effected in such manner as to minimize losses while regaining the tactical advantage.

SECTION IV: INDIVIDUAL OFFENSIVE TACTICS

31. GENERAL.-Thorough training of the pilot in the fundamentals of individual combat tactics is of vital importance. The pilot must be prepared to conduct individual air fighting missions under one or more of the following situations:

a. In pursuit versus pursuit action when the forces become temporarily disorganized and out of tactical control.

b. When tactical unity of a formation has been disrupted through adverse weather or visibility conditions.

c. As a result of dispersion caused by surprise attacks or an attack by overwhelming numbers.

d. When separated from his formation and a target of opportunity presents itself.

e. In night pursuit operations.
 

32. FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBAT.-All successful pursuit combat is performed by the application of four fundamentals:

a. Surprise.--Strike the enemy first

(1) By taking advantage of the sun's rays, clouds, and visibility conditions.

(2) By approaching the enemy's most vulnerable quarter.

(3) By taking advantage of enemy preoccupation.
 

b. Offensive.-The pursuit pilot must attack with energy and determination, pushing the attack until either the enemy is destroyed or his own ammunition exhausted. Should he be placed on the defensive, he must by his own skill strive to regain the offensive as soon as possible.

c. Concentration of fire.--Fire of all guns is directed at the most vulnerable parts of the airplane, that is, personnel, fuel tanks, controls, or other vital parts. In most airplanes these are all contained in a relatively small portion of the fuselage and may be protected by defensive armament. To deliver destructive fire on this target demands extreme accuracy. Successful attacks require concentration of fire at effective ranges.

d. Security.-For adequate security, compatible with his mission for himself and his equipment, the pursuit pilot must

(1) Be always on the alert watching especially the upper rear hemisphere. Observation of the air for enemy aircraft must be rapid, systematic, and thorough, always covering first the more dangerous regions above followed by the regions below.

(2) Never needlessly sacrifice the advantage of superior altitude in an attack.

(3) Never fly straight at any enemy when within effective range of his guns except when actually firing.

(4) Follow through in an attack beyond effective range of hostile defensive fire.

(5) Never lose sight of the opponent.
 

33. ATTACK ON A SINGLE-SEATER.-a. The best position from which to attack a single-seater airplane is from above and to the rear of the target. In this position the attacker has the advantage of speed and power of maneuver gained from superior altitude.

b. In the execution of a surprise attack, care must be exercised to avoid overrunning the opponent, as this will result in placing him in a favorable position to fire on the attacker or to escape by quickly turning before the attack can be resumed.

34. ATTACK ON A TWO-SEATER.--It is more difficult to gain surprise for attack on a two-seater than on a single-seater airplane. The best position for launching the attack will be dependent upon the blind angles of the two-seater, though the most vulnerable sector usually is found by approaching from the rear and below. Forcing the two-seater to execute rapid maneuvers to avoid the attacker's fire will greatly reduce the accuracy of defensive fire power of the rear seat gunner.

35. ATTACK ON A MULTISEATER.--An attack on a multiseater by a single pursuit airplane will be hazardous if all possible approaches to it are effectively covered by defensive machine gun fire. A determined following attack may be made from the rear at the same level or slightly below the target. The rear gunner in the multiseater is the initial target. Concentrated fire at close ranges may be necessary to destroy multi-seater aircraft. Withdrawal from such attack should be made in a manner to avoid the defensive fire of the hostile aircraft, preferably to the rear.

36. ATTACK ON FORMATIONS.-a. Pursuit formation.-Attacks on pursuit formations by individuals must usually be confined to the rearmost airplanes of the formation. Surprise attacks may occasionally be made with success if the formation is carelessly flown or if the attack is made suddenly. Such attacks are made by using the "dive and run" tactics, the attacker depending upon one or two bursts to deliver effective fire and relying on the speed gained in a steeply diving attack to carry him out of effective range of defense fire.

b. Multiseater formation.-The individual cannot effectively attack formations which possess a strong defensive fire to the rear. Consequently, the pursuit pilot operating alone should confine his efforts to stragglers that fall behind the main formation. Such opportunities will be rare, and the individuals should not make a general practice of operating against such formations.

37. ATTACK ON CAPTIVE BALLOONS.--A special operation for pursuit aviation is the destruction of captive balloons. This work should be assigned to pilots who are specially adept at attacking stationary targets. The best results are obtained by diving into the wind or under cover of the sun and concentrating fire in the smallest possible space on the highest point of the balloon. Attacks on balloons can be made effectively with long range machine guns or cannon and by dive bombing.

SECTION V: FLIGHT OFFENSIVE TACTICS

38. GENERAL.--a. The flight.-The flight is normally composed of six pursuit airplanes under the direct leadership and control of one individual. To enable it to have greater flexibility, maneuverability, and control, it is subdivided into elements of two or three airplanes each. The tactics of the element are fundamentally the same as those of the flight. The elements are a part of a closely coordinated combat team and are mutually supporting.

b. Tactical employment.--The flight is the principal tactical subunit of the squadron. It does not operate as an independent command except under unusual circumstances. It may then be detached temporarily from the squadron to perform certain tactical missions, such as combat patrols, or to attack small formations or other appropriate targets.

c. Fire unit.-The flight is the largest pursuit unit in which all airplanes while in formation can deliver effective fire simultaneously upon a single enemy airplane. For this reason the flight is the basic fire unit of the squadron and the basis for squadron tactics.

39. COMBAT FORMATION.--Elements of the flight are so disposed as to furnish mutual support and to permit rapid concentration of fire power. The elements guiding on the leader may be echeloned in depth, altitude, or laterally, depending upon type, disposition, and tactics of the enemy.

40. ATTACK ON A SINGLE-SEATER.--a. In launching an attack on one single-seater the whole flight formation does not ordinarily lose altitude to engage in combat. A three-plane element of the formation engages the hostile single-seater while the remainder of the flight acts as reserve.

b. On signal of the flight commander the designated element of the flight descends to attack. While one airplane closes in to fire, the others support the attack by closing in on the flanks to prevent the enemy from turning to escape or to engage in a close turning combat duel.

41. ATTACK ON A MULTISEATER.--a. The method of attacking a multiseater is predicated upon the quantity of the defensive armament and its disposition. One element makes a direct attack through the most vulnerable sector while the remainder of the flight conducts harassing fire from the flanks in order to divert the enemy's fire from the attacking element, and also to take up the direct attack in case of maneuver by the multiseater. Normally one element is sufficient to destroy a two-seater. Against aircraft possessing heavy all-around defensive fire power a flight may be necessary.

b. The initial attack on a multiseater possessing heavy armament with all angles covered by fire normally should be a massed fire attack. The flight in mass formation approaches the target from the rear and at the longest effective range initiates the assault, continuing to close on the target until destruction is accomplished.

 42. ATTACK ON FORMATIONS.--a. Pursuit formations-(1) Attacks on pursuit formations must be launched from superior altitude. The approach must be direct and with full speed. The immediate objectives are the highest elements of the enemy formation. Every effort must be made to preserve the tactical integrity of the unit throughout the air fight. When close maneuver combat is forced, all individuals work inward and attempt to gain altitude during the fight. Individual pilots temporarily disengaged during an air fight should reenter combat only from superior altitude.

(2) If the hostile pursuit formation is very compact every effort must be made to disrupt its unity by the shock of the first fire attack. In every case it is imperative that all the hostile pursuit airplanes above and to the sides be engaged prior to or simultaneously with the attack on those at lower altitude.

(3) A flight attacking a numerically inferior force normally should send approximately an equal number of airplanes to the attack. The remaining airplanes of the flight should maintain their altitude over the combat as a reserve for the primary purpose of providing security for the attacking force. This reserve should be prepared to prevent unengaged hostile airplanes from gaining altitude on the attacking force. This reserve should also be prepared to prevent hostile airplanes from withdrawing from the combat when it is apparent that the enemy force is disorganized. The correct employment of the reserve insures minimum losses to the attacking force and maximum losses to the defending force. As long as the enemy fighting unit is conducting organized resistance every effort is made to effect his disorganization and defeat.

b. Defensive formations-(1) The various types of defensive formations include those composed of two-seaters and multiseaters. A defensive formation of superior fire power should be subjected to harassing attacks at long range with guns and attacks from above with time-fuze bombs for the purpose of breaking or temporarily disorganizing the formation. Fighter units should close without delay for the destruction of any hostile unit temporarily disorganized.

(2) Formations of reconnaissance aircraft are usually small and compact. Attacks on such formations will be a normal function of the pursuit flight. In making the attack, the pursuit flight will make converging attacks from the rear bringing simultaneous fire to bear upon the target.

43. THE RALLY -The rally of a flight after combat is a matter of indoctrination and training. It may be necessary to select a predesignated point or to direct all members to return to the home airdrome after dispersal of the flight due to combat. Whenever practical the flight rallies upon the leader after termination of combat.

SECTION VI: SQUADRON OFFENSIVE TACTICS

44. GENERAL-a. The squadron consists of three flights and is both tactical and administrative. It is, therefore, capable of operating as an independent command. It is under the direct tactical control of the squadron commander who exercises this control through his flight commanders.

b. The three flight squadron provides a sound tactical unit for air fighting. It is especially suitable for covering a large area and providing small combat units capable of independent action under the control of the flight leaders. It is readily employed in situations where it is desirable to attack with three flights operating on different levels. It is readily adapted to screening and search missions, such as the mission of denying hostile reconnaissance in an area and the interception of hostile bombardment formations.

45. COMBAT FORMATION.-a. The squadron operating independently when approaching a hostile formation whose location or flight path is known takes up a combat formation. All subunits will be in mutual supporting distance, and the individual airplanes are so spaced within elements as to permit ease in maintaining the formation and conducting aimed fire.

b. Echelonment of flights within the squadron in altitude, distance, and lateral interval is dependent upon the type. strength, and disposition of the hostile air forces to be encountered.

c. Whenever pursuit opposition is expected the flights are echeloned in altitude. The three flights then have separate tactical responsibilities and are designated as follows:

(1) The leading flight is the assault echelon, is at the lowest altitude, and is normally led by the squadron commander.

(2) The intermediate flight is the support echelon.

(3) The highest flight is the reserve echelon.

(4) As their names indicate, the assault echelon will normally initiate the attack. The support echelon joins combat in support of the assault echelon, and the reserve echelon acts as a security detachment against other possible enemy pursuit until either it is assured no other enemy is present or that the situation demands its participation.

46. SEARCH FORMATIONS.-a. Disposition for search.-If the exact position and path of approach of the enemy are in doubt, or if an area is to be examined, the squadron takes up a search formation. The leading flight takes the central position with its airplanes spread out in a line perpendicular to the path of flight and at a distance depending on the degree of visibility and the requirements for rapid concentration. The other two flights take positions with similar dispersion on the flanks and are echeloned in two higher altitudes, the altitude of each being dependent on visibility and desired rapidity of concentration.

b. Attack from search formation.-The normal method of concentration is for all flights to converge on the flight making contact with the enemy. The contacting flight immediately goes into the firing position in rear of the enemy formation and initiates the assault, while the other two flights assume positions on the flanks and above the enemy out of effective range of the defensive guns and then institute harassing flank attacks. If equipped with bombs, detachments are made from the flank units to bomb the enemy formation.

47. ATTACK ON FORMATIONS.-a. Attack on pursuit formations.—(1) Normally a full squadron attack is made on a hostile fighter formation only when some other pursuit unit is acting as a security force. Otherwise only the assault and support echelons initially engage in the attack. Squadron attacks on pursuit formations usually will be preceded by maneuver for advantage of altitude and position. The commander must exercise great care in maneuvering his unit to avoid dispersing the formation.

(2) The first object of the squadron attack is to break up the hostile fighter formation in order to permit attacks on dispersed units in detail. The assault echelon dives quickly to the attack and is followed immediately by the support, with the reserve echelon remaining unengaged as a security force until it is clear that no supporting hostile forces are in the vicinity. In the attack each pilot singles out an enemy airplane and delivers aimed fire upon it. After delivering their fire the attacking echelons pull up as a unit and regain altitude in order to resume the attack from a favorable position as soon as possible. Tactical unity is maintained throughout the assault, exploitation, or withdrawal.

b. Attack on defensive formations (bombardment and reconnaissance) .--(1) The initial attack of a squadron upon a close defensive formation should, if possible, be a concerted surprise attack with the aim of causing casualties and the dispersal of the formation. If this result is gained the dispersed elements are destroyed in detail. If the defensive formation is already dispersed and a surprise attack can be made, attrition is best effected by attacking and destroying dispersed elements out of range of supporting fire. Disabled and straggler airplanes will be destroyed if and when they leave the support of the defensive formation.

(2) If hostile fighter aviation is present within supporting distance, it must be engaged and destroyed or drawn away beyond immediate supporting distance of the defensive formation by a part of the attacking pursuit force while the remainder of the force attacks the hostile formation.

48. THE RALLY.— a. The plan for the rally should be made prior to combat and is a matter of training and indoctrination. The rally after combat may be effected in several ways:

(1) Upon the leader's airplane.

(2) By flights and then upon the leading flight.

(3) Upon the reserve echelon.

(4) Over a predesignated point at a specified altitude.
 

b. The ability to rally a squadron after combat is a measure of the training and tactical control of the commanders. A rally by flights is made after each engagement and contact between the flights reestablished as soon as possible.

SECTION VII: GROUP OFFENSIVE TACTICS

49. ORGANIZATION.-The pursuit group is normally composed of three tactical squadrons. The group formation provides a strong fighting force with ample reserves for operations against large enemy aviation forces.

50. PURPOSE.--a. The pursuit group provides a large concentration that has sufficient strength to

(1l) Force a favorable decision in the air against large enemy concentrations.

(2) Effect penetrations of enemy territory against strong hostile fighter resistance.

(3) Provide security and reserve detachments without unduly detracting from the effectiveness of the main force.

(4) Provide air security to an area by continuous patrols; by an alerted force; or by a combination of both without resulting in excessive fatigue to personnel.

b. The group is the largest tactical pursuit organization that can be controlled in the air by an individual. The group commander exercises this control through the squadron commanders. It is the largest pursuit command that can be maneuvered into position for a coordinated attack on an appropriate hostile formation.

51. POSITION OF GROUP COMMANDER.-To exercise tactical control of a pursuit force during combat it is essential that the commander be able to observe directly the disposition and conduct of his command. The position of the group commander in a group formation will depend upon the situation and upon his own judgment. He may actually lead the group by attaching himself to the leading unit or by leading a command flight and requiring the group to conform to his movements. In actual combat he will place himself above and toward a flank in such position that he can maintain tactical control of the group. The command flight will act as a security force for the group commander.

52. METHODS OF CONTROL.--The group commander has three methods for the control of his group in the air:

a. Indoctrination.--The squadrons of the group should be so trained that in the normal methods of air attack the squadrons automatically take proper position to furnish appropriate assault, support, and reserve forces. Radio and visual signals are kept at a minimum. Indoctrination is the only dependable method of control in the heat of combat.

b. Radio.--Simple radio code signals, for types of formations, method of attack, the attack, and the rally, are a valuable aid to the group commander for control of the group in the air. Radio is extremely valuable for effecting quick concentration of forces when they are dispersed in search or in scattered patrols or when other means of control are ineffective.

c. Visual signals.--Visual signals, while valuable to squadron and flight commanders in controlling their units, should be kept to an absolute minimum by the group commander. Signals employed by him should apply only to the most important phases of the mission. All signals must be simple, clear, and instantly understandable.

53. COMBAT DISPOSITION.--A combat disposition at or above the estimated altitude of the enemy is assumed when the probable scene of action is approached. The commander in disposing his forces bears in mind the altitude desired, distance for rapid concentration and mutual support.

a. Pursuit versus pursuit operations.—(1) Security detachments.-In operations where pursuit opposition may be expected, the group places security detachments to the front, flanks, and above the main body. The relative position of these detachments depends on visibility conditions. They should be far enough out to prevent surprise attacks or an unexpected collision with the enemy. The duties of these detachments are to search for the enemy, prevent surprise attacks on the main body, and when contact is made to direct the main body to the enemy or, if contact is to be avoided, draw the enemy away from the main body. For this reason it is essential that communication be maintained with the main body. The security detachments normally are flight elements dispatched from one squadron. After the main body is committed to the attack the security detachments assemble over the scene of combat and join the reserve.

(2) The main body.--The assault echelon is the guide for the entire formation. The support and reserve echelons, taking position above and slightly to the rear of the assault echelon, conform to its movements and remain in quick supporting distance at all times.

b. Pursuit versus bombardment.--In operations against bombardment formations, where normally no pursuit protection is expected, security detachments are not necessary. However, a part of the group is thrown out in front of the main body for conducting search. The strength of the search force is dependent upon the amount of information available as to the enemy location and movements. If little information is available, the entire group may assume the search formation with squadrons echeloned laterally and in altitude. The squadron making contact with the enemy reports, immediately reassembles, and takes up the main assault position from the rear. The remaining squadrons assemble and take up positions to the flanks. If equipped for bombing, one squadron takes a position above and initiates bombing attacks.

54. ATTACK ON FORMATIONS.-a. Pursuit formations.

Surprise attacks by a group on a hostile fighter formation will seldom be effected. When the enemy fighter formation is contacted and combat is to be initiated the security detachments assemble with the reserve echelon while the main body maneuvers for position.

(1) Upon equal or inferior numbers the initial attack is made by the assault and support echelons in a rapid succession with the aim of causing the maximum casualties and disrupting the formation. If disruption of the enemy formation occurs, superior numbers are used to overwhelm the disrupted elements. The reserve, meanwhile, retains its altitude over the scene of combat under control of the group commander. It is not committed until needed to support the assaulting units or cover their withdrawal. The reserve never sacrifices its tactical advantage of altitude until committed to action. When the enemy is completely demoralized and scattered the reserve is used to complete the destruction. If it is not committed it acts as the rally point for the units that have been in action.

(2) Against superior numbers.--The group will use "hit and run" or harassing tactics upon the rear from superior altitude, attacking by chain of squadrons. In using tactics of this nature the group must remain fairly compact and under complete control. Sustained combat should be avoided.

b. Bombardment formations.--Pursuit attacks on bombardment formations are predicated upon the type of defensive formation employed; that is, whether it is a compact formation employing supporting fires of all defensive armament or a loose formation in which all defensive fire is not supporting.

(1) Compact defensive formations.-This is the least maneuverable of all defensive formations. In this case the aim of pursuit is to cause as many casualties as possible with the initial assault and to disperse the formation. The four-squadron group disposes itself about the defensive formation in the following manner:

(a) The assault squadron takes up a position in rear, conforming closely to the speed of the hostile formation, and delivers concentrated fire from effective ranges either by waves of flights or by squadron concentration.

(b) One squadron, if equipped with time fuze or fragmentation bombs, may take a position well above and initiate time fuze or dive bombing attacks on the defensive formation.

(c) The remaining two squadrons take up flank positions out of effective range of the defensive guns and by flank attacks harass the enemy and draw some of the defensive fire. If the enemy maneuvers to evade fire, the flanking squadron from which the turn is made becomes the main assault squadron, while the other flanking squadron and the former assault squadron take flanking positions. This attack is sustained, squadrons rotating in a prescribed order, until the enemy is dispersed, destroyed, or the attackers' ammunition is exhausted.

(2) Extended defensive formations.--(a) Extended formations are those that have considerable interval between units but are not out of supporting range of the nearest units. Extended bombardment formations possess greater maneuverability for the individual units than does the compact defensive formation although the supporting fire is not so effective. Their main reliance for security in this case is maneuverability. The pursuit group concentrates its attack on the outermost unit or, in situations where they are relatively small, on the two outer units.

(b) The method of attack is similar to the attack on a compact formation except that the flanking unit toward the supporting fire takes position at an angle to the rear or stays out of combat in some convenient location ready to rotate with the assault unit. If the attacked units close in to a compact formation, the method of attack for that formation is adopted.

(3) Dispersed defensive formations.--Dispersed formations are those in which the subunits are out of supporting distance of each other. Dispersion may have been a result of an attack, weather and visibility conditions, or for some other reasons. This condition is ideal for a pursuit group and is one that it strives for in all attacks. The group commander in such situations directs sufficient force for the attack on each dispersed unit to insure its complete destruction in the shortest time. The attacks on dispersed units are sustained until complete destruction in detail is attained. In case the enemy closes up the formation for mutual protection, as he most assuredly will attempt to do, then concentrated attacks are again resorted to for attrition and dispersion.

 55. THE RALLY.-A pursuit group after combat may rally in the following ways:

a. Upon a disengaged unit.

b. Upon the group commander's element.

c. Over a point or locality and at a designated altitude.

d. To a flank or to the rear of the target.

SECTION VIII: PURSUIT DEFENSIVE TACTICS

56. GENERAL.--Pursuit can be placed on the tactical defensive only by enemy pursuit. In air fights against all other types of combat aviation, pursuit possesses the inherent advantage of the initiative, that is, ability to fight or withdraw at will due to superior performance.

57. Aim.-The aim of a pursuit force fighting on the defensive is to regain the offensive as soon as possible. All defensive formations and maneuvers are based on that aim.

58. SINGLE AIRPLANE.--Every effort is made by the defending pilot to secure the advantage of altitude. In event of attack from the rear and above, a rapid change of direction toward a point beneath the attacking airplane is made and climb started. Each time the attacker turns, the defender turns in the opposite direction until equal altitude is attained. Careful flying of the airplane will materially aid in gaining altitude and outmaneuvering the opponent. The defending pilot should keep oriented with respect to friendly terrain and endeavor to maneuver toward friendly terrain and ground forces.

59. FLIGHT.-a. The defense of any formation is based on maneuvering that brings effective fire to bear upon the attacking force. Every defensive maneuver must have as its objective the gaining of a position from which the offensive may be assumed.

b. The pursuit flight is forced on the defensive when attacked from above and the rear. It then has the choice of numerous defensive maneuvers, the selection of the most effective one depending upon such variable conditions as the time available before coming under effective fire, meteorological conditions, knowledge of hostile tactics, disposition, performance characteristics and size of the attacking force, and availability of friendly supporting forces. A very effective maneuver consists of reversing the direction of the flight so as to meet the attack headon. As the hostile force passes overhead, another reverse is rapidly executed. By this maneuver the enemy's initial advantage of position may be neutralized, and by carefully outflying the enemy the advantage of altitude may be attained.

c. When a flight is attacked by an inferior force, an effective series of defensive maneuvers consists of rapidly increasing the distance between elements. This maneuver deprives the enemy of the opportunity for attacking a concentrated target, forces him to select a definite target, and provides more maneuver room for the units of the defensive flight. Succeeding maneuvers of the defensive flight depend upon the enemy's choice of a target, but generally it will be found that at least one element will be in position to turn into and fire upon the attacking force.

d. When supporting forces are in the vicinity a defensive maneuver which may be used is the Lufberry Circle. Each airplane covers the one directly ahead, making an attack by small forces extremely hazardous. This maneuver should be used only when supporting forces are in the vicinity, as it is difficult for the defensive force to assume the offensive from a Lufberry unless aided by supporting forces.

60. SQUADRON.-a. In the presence of enemy pursuit the pursuit squadron uses a chain formation with the flights echeloned in altitude. If practicable, the reserve echelon flies at or above the altitude where hostile pursuit is expected. This disposition precludes the simultaneous surprise attack of more than one flight. The flight that is attacked rapidly maneuvers so that the remaining flights are placed in a position of tactical advantage and may assume the offensive.

b. The first consideration of the attacked unit is to avoid the enemy's fire. It may dive toward the other supporting units, it may turn rapidly into the attacker, or it may assume a Lufberry Circle until the other units can arrive and give friendly support.

c. Each unit strives to retain its tactical unity and so maneuver that the most effective fire can eventually be turned toward the enemy.

d. When a superior hostile force is encountered, the commander will endeavor to avoid combat if the mission permits. If the mission requires combat, an attack is launched regardless of inferiority of numbers.

61. GROUP.--If for any reason the group should be placed at a tactical disadvantage, either by a superior force or by a surprise attack, immediate steps must be taken first to evade enemy fire and then to assume the offensive. The echelon(s) that receives the attack dives or maneuvers toward the disengaged units, evading the enemy fire meantime by flying an erratic course. This action is taken to permit one of the supporting echelons to gain a tactical advantage over the enemy and take up the offensive against him. The remainder of the squadron rapidly gains altitude and position, to support the fighting echelons. If and when tactical equality or superiority is gained, the group commander has the choice of continuing the fight or withdrawing as the situation demands.