US AAC/AAF Doctrine: FM-15, Air Fighting, 1942 - Part 1

CHAPTER 1:  OBJECTIVES OF AIR FIGHTING

I. General ---------------------------------------- 1-4

IL Pursuit aviation in defense ---------- ------        5-8

III. Penetrations of pursuit defense --------------- 9-10

GENERAL

1. AIR FIGHTING-An air fight is a combat between aircraft involving fire and movement by the opposing forces engaged. Fighting between aircraft in flight results from or grows out of the attempt to deny air attack and air observation. In air fighting there is no counterpart of the battle between ground forces. Air fighting is incidental to the carrying out of other and potentially decisive air operations. In itself, air fighting is indecisive, except as it affects the success or failure of other technical functions of aviation or ground forces. The permanent effects of air combat are measured in terms of attrition of the forces engaged and reduction in vigor of the enemy's air operations,

2. DEPENSIVELY FIGHTING FORCES.-Air fighting is a hindrance to the performance of the potentially decisive functions of air attack on surface or subsurface objectives. Forces engaged in carrying out air attack functions seek to avoid combat and accept it only when it cannot be avoided. The object of such forces, even when air combat has been imposed upon them, is to persevere in their operations while avoiding losses. As a consequence, forces performing the functions of air attack and air observation only fight defensively in the air. Furthermore, forces designed primarily to carry out these functions normally lack equipment possessing the necessary performance superiority to permit imposing combat on enemy aerial forces.

3. OFFENSIVELY FIGHTING FORCES.-a. Function.-Pursuit aviation is designed primarily for the purpose of imposing air combat on enemy forces. The principal function of pursuit aviation is to offer resistance to enemy air attack and air reconnaissance. Pursuit must perform its role by fightIng offensively in the air. To this end it must be equipped with aircraft of superior performance which can initiate and force combat upon the enemy. The primary object of the pursuit force in air combat is to deny or to limit enemy air attack or air reconnaissance. A secondary object may be the support of friendly air attack or air reconnaissance or under appropriate conditions the attack of ground forces.

b. Pursuit versus Pursuit.-In situations where opposing pursuit forces are based within reach of each other, air fighting may take place between them. The sole purpose of such combat is as a means to the end of denying hostile air attack and air reconnaissance, or in aiding such friendly operations.

c. Escort fighters.-In, situations where air attack is subjected to serious hostile fighter opposition and the range of available friendly pursuit or special fighter equipment permits, a fighter escort may be employed to assist in penetrating the defenses. The object of accompanying fighters in air combat is to insure the success of the forces they support. Their fire power may be considered as replacing or augmenting the defensive fire power of the supported force. Their mission precludes their seeking to impose combat on other forces except as necessary to carry out their defensive role.

4. MEASUREMENT OF SUCCESS.---a. In air combat the success of the offensive fighting force is measured by the loss in efficiency suffered by the enemy force in the performance of its assigned task.

b. The success of the defensively fighting force in air combat Is measured by the extent to which its efficiency is maintained in performance of its task of air attack or air reconnaissance.

SECTION II:  PURSUIT AVIATION IN DEFENSE

5. EFFECTIVENESS-a. General.-A knowledge of the powers and limitations of pursuit aviation is a prerequisite of sound employment. Its capabilities as a means of defense will vary more with respect to the manner of employment than will those of any other defensive agency. Where pursuit aviation is used efficiently a small force may be expected to exert an extraordinary influence in the defense. On the other hand, large forces will accomplish little when they are employed for the defense of localities or sectors that are not susceptible to efficient defense by pursuit aviation.

b. Flexibility.-Pursuit defense is inherently more flexible than other means of antiaircraft defense due to its tactical mobility. It may be applied to some advantage in the defense of any area or objective whenever the other forms of defense are incapable of furnishing the desired degree of protection. The enemy will be able to determine the probable location of antiaircraft weapon defenses and will avoid them, or be prepared for their fire during the relatively brief periods of time that his forces may be exposed to such action. Pursuit, on the other hand, constitutes a threat which may materialize at any time against enemy forces within the pursuit zones of action.

c. Changing tactics--Pursuit aviation cannot be employed effectively in active air defense by precisely following definite rules, The hostile air offensive that it opposes is extremely flexible, both in the tactical execution of offensive operations and in the readiness with which the general character of the offensive may be changed. Enemy tactics will vary constantly to meet operating conditions and to circumvent the resistance offered by the defense. The pursuit defense must respond rapidly to changes in the offensive. The action of the enemy must be anticipated and dispositions, methods of employment, and tactics varied accordingly.

d. Moral effect.-Pursuit aviation will have a greater moral effect than the other antiaircraft defenses inasmuch as it brings the threat of actual combat to the enemy. Although it will be impossible for the defender to determine the strength of attacking forces that will be employed in speciflc operations, the enemy will also be unable to determine the strength of the pursuit forces that may be brought against him. Unless conditions permit the enemy to evade the defending pursuit, he must be prepared to accept combat during the entire time that he is exposed, under conditions wherein the defending force has the initiative.

c. Limitations.-In common with the other forms of antiaircraft defense, pursuit has limitations that seriously influence its capabilities for coping with the air offensive. Its flexibility is restricted by range and the availability and location of airdromes and facilities. These facilities are in themselves vulnerable to air attack. In general, pursuit operations are limited by darkness and inclement weather. Pursuit aircraft designed for daytime operation can operate effectively at night in conjunction with antiaircraft searchlights and ground control, and may even operate with effect on nights of particularly good visibility-bright moon, and in the light of conflagration on the ground. Special night fighters have been designed which can operate at night in almost any kind of weather.

f. Primary purpose.-Pursuit defense is organized primarily for defense against air attack. A defense against air attack will provide incidental defense against other enemy air operations. A pursuit defense for purely counterreconnaissance purposes is generally of insufficient strength to cope with hostile air attack forces.

6. BASIS FOR EFFECTIVE EMPLOYMENT.-a. Defense tasks.In considering employment of the defensive force, the force commander is confronted with the problem of selecting tasks to be performed in the conduct of the defense. He will be confronted with the allocation of defensive forces for the performance of those tasks. The selection of tasks to be performed by the defense is dependent upon the capabilities of the enemy striking force. Hence the initial problem involves a determination of the capabilities of the enemy striking force and his possible lines of action. The enemy may be expected to attack those physical installations which are immediately vital to us or those which, if destroyed or neutralized, will have the most widespread and lasting effect on our own military operations. The first step, therefore, in establishing tasks for the defense is an analysis of our own situation with a view to determining the elements which are most important to us, and which are most likely to be attacked by the enemy, considering the location of enemy bases and the characteristics of enemy aircraft.

b. Influence of position on defense effectiveness.-The location of a vital element to be defended, relative to the outer limits of the aircraft warning service, has a profound influence upon the capability of the defensive force. Methods of operation of defensive pursuit forces are determined by relative performance of enemy and friendly airplanes and amount of warning time. This factor is in large measure determined by the depth of penetration of the enemy into the aircraft warning service area required to reach the objective. Since the efficiency of the pursuit force varies with the method of employment, and that method varies with depth of penetration into the aircraft warning service area, the efficacy of the pursuit defense will vary with the location of the objectives to be defended and the locations of the defending pursuit forces.

7. SIZE OF PURSUIT COMBAT FORCES-a. Objective.-The outcome of air combat, like other forms of combat, depends to a great extent upon the relative fire power of the opposing forces. From the standpoint of any particular combat, the larger the pursuit force that is brought against the enemy, the greater are its chances of success. In the defense of any considerable area, however, normally it will be impossible to dispose the defending pursuit in a manner that will insure the presence of a superior fire power in all air combat. The entire defense, however, must be organized on a basis that will provide pursuit combat commands that are strong enough to engage the enemy in air combat. The determination of the size of these air combat commands is a problem that is basic to the whole defense. If the combat commands are unnecessarily large the number of objectives that can be defended will be decreased, or the area over which resistance is offered must be reduced. On the other hand, if they are too small they will be unable to perform successfully their function of air combat.

b. Factors influencing.-The actual size of the combat commands will vary with the pursuit aviation available; the general character of the defense; the relative performance characteristics of friendly and enemy aviation; enemy tactics and defensive armament; and with weather and other conditions that influence the air operations of both forces. Under conditions that favor the employment of the pursuit defense, the enemy may be expected to operate with large attacking forces. Under conditions of low visibility enemy operations may be conducted with smaller combat commands or by individual airplanes. In general, it will be necessary to predict the size of the force that the enemy will probably use in accordance with the existing conditions in order that the defense may be properly prepared. If all the enemy striking force commands are to be opposed, the size of the pursuit combat forces must be reduced when the enemy operates with small combat commands.

c. Influence of armament characteristics-Where the fire power of individual pursuit aircraft exceeds that of individual enemy aircraft, individual pursuit aircraft will be able to engage an attacking force with some degree of success, even though numerically inferior to that force.

8. DISPOSITION OF DEFENSES.-The disposition of the pursuit defenses is governed by the enemy capabilities; the size of the pursuit force available; the character and extent of the aircraft warning service; and the number, character, and location of the objectives that cannot be provided adequate security by other means of defense.

SECTION III:  PENETRATIONS OF PURSUIT DEFENSE

9. AIR DEFENSE BY AIR ATTACK FORCES.-a. General.methods of operation employed by air attack forces in penetrating areas where pursuit opposition is present will vary greatly with the nature of the defense and the condition of the weather. In general, the fighter defense should be approached in a direction that the enemy least expects and in a manner he is least able to oppose. A course of action that will result in the greatest surprise to the enemy aids in gaining security for the attacking force.

b. Formation strength.-For defense in air combat the primary reliance of an air attack command is placed upon its ability to defend itself. Where defensive fire power is an element of special importance in carrying out particular operations, this will be a controlling factor in determining the size of the command to be employed. The defensive strength must not be reduced below a point which will provide reasonable security against enemy fighters. Formation air attacks should always be employed when massed defensive fire power is necessary for security.

10. METHODS OF OPERATION.-The higher commander will plan and direct operations so as to reduce the possible effectiveness of the enemy pursuit defense. These plans may include any or all of the following methods of operation:

a. Coordinated air attacks-Coordinated air attacks are operations in which several attacking forces are employed to arrive simultaneously within an area defended by hostile fighter aviation. Such operations are designed to prevent the successive engagement of our forces by hostile fighters; to gain surprise; or to produce greater moral effect. Security from the hostile fighting force is also obtained by the mutual support that attacking forces can give one another. In such operations it is impossible for the defending forces to concentrate their full strength against the separate air attacking units.

b. Mass attacks.-Mass attacks delivered by a large concentration of aircraft, operating in suitable tactical format and arriving over the objective at suitable intervals, will reduce the pursuit opposition that can be directed against successive assaulting waves and will be less costly in casualties than sustained attacks carried out by the small bombardment formations.

c. Repeated attacks.-Repeated air attacks may be made where it is desired to force the enemy to divert enemy fighter aircraft to the defense of the objectives attacked.

d. Secondary air attacks.--Secondary air attacks may be conducted for the purpose of drawing the defending fighters away from a vital objective or for the purpose of causing the enemy to extend and disperse his defenses.

e. Night attacks.-Night attacks provide an effective means of minimizing enemy fighter opposition and are generally conducted against targets that can be effectively bombed by available equipment under the visibility limitations of night operations. It is becoming increasingly difficult for attack forces to evade the active air defense forces under cover of darkness due to increased effectiveness of searchlights, antiaircraft artillery, and radio detectors.

CHAPTER 2: TACTICAL PLANS

11. FORMULATION.-a. Success In air fighting depends upon

(1) Simple tactical plans.

(2) Correct selection of the tactical plan best suited to the situation.

(3) Method of execution of the plan.

b. In formulating these tactical plans, consideration should be given in particular to concentration, the offensive, surprise, and security.

12. SELECTION.-The correct selection of the tactical plan best suited to the situation is the special responsibility of the leader or commander of the forces concerned, and will depend upon the accuracy of his judgment and his faculty for quick and correct decision.

13. EXECUTION. a. The subsequent success of the tactical plan will depend mainly upon the

(1) Skill and vigor of execution.

(2) Effective use of weapons.

(3) Power of maneuver.

Thorough familiarity with the plan by all members of the unit is necessary for its efficient execution.

b. The attack should be delivered with determination and pressed home to decisive ranges. Intensive drill in tactical maneuvers will Increase the cohesion of the attacking formation and strengthen mutual understanding, rendering it possible to deliver sustained or repeated attacks with a minimum of confusion or loss of control and to produce the maximum concentration of fire at the decisive point.

14. DEVELOPMENT OF METHODS.--a. The tactical methods to be adopted in air fighting must be evolved, developed, and perfected prior to war. These methods should be the product of experience confirmed by constant practice and experiment in tactical exercises. They should be sufficiently flexible to facilitate rapid revisions necessitated by combat experience.

b. To be of any permanent and practical value in war, they should be few in number and simple of execution, so that the average pilot can become thoroughly familiar with them and efficient in their practice with the minimum amount of training.

c. The methods adopted should, therefore, be limited to those necessary to meet the varying conditions likely to the encountered in air fighting, and that suit the special tactical characteristics of the different types of aircraft which may be required to use them.

15. EFFECT OF ARMAMENT AND DESIGN ON AIR TACTICS.-a. Development in armament and design will lead to changes in air tactics, the success of a particular method of attack may be countered by the provision of armor or by the elimination of blind spots due to improvements in design.

b. The development of suitable fire-control systems may render the fire of heavier caliber guns more effective at longer ranges. All-around fire may be improved by increasing the number of guns and gunners and reducing the interruptions of fire due to the structure of the aircraft. All these changes will tend to increase the offensive and defensive powers of aircraft and modify the tactical methods of attack and defense.

CHAPTER 3: FACTORS AFFECTING AIR FIGHTING

16. AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE.-a. Speed factors.-Superior rate of climb and airspeed are essential factors for the interception of hostile aircraft in order to impose air combat. The unit possessing equipment with superior climb and speed can, within limits, choose the time and place for initiating the fight. The ability to select a favorable time and place is a distinct advantage.

b. Maneuverability.-The relative maneuverability of aircraft will materially influence the tactics employed in air fighting. Maneuverability is of extreme importance in aircraft equipped only with fixed guns as it governs the ease and speed with which the guns can be alined and held on the target. Maneuverability facilitates the evasion of fire by defensively fighting aircraft.

17. ARMAMENT.-a. Fire effect.-The outcome of an air combat will be dependent upon the relative fire effect obtained by the opposing forces, This fire effect may be either physical or moral or both. The destructive effect of fire against either force is determined by the destructive power of the projectiles used and the number of hits secured. Adverse moral effect influences the attacker to fire at ineffective ranges or to withdraw from attacks before the desired result is achieved. Adverse moral effect influences the defensive force by reducing the accuracy of its fire and demoralizing its system of supporting fire.

b, Accuracy of fire.-The accuracy of fire is dependent primarily on the following variables:

(1) Range.-The shorter the range, the more nearly will the projectiles conform to their mean trajectory and hit at the point indicated by direct sighting. If the target is maneuvering it may move out of the cone of fire while the projectiles are in flight; therefore, the shorter the range the greater the accuracy of fire.

(2) Relative positions and motions.-(a) Accuracy of fire is adversely affected when sighting lead must be applied in aiming. Sighting lead varies with the angularity of the line of fire to the path of the target and with the rate of change of that angularity.

(b) Motion of the firing airplane about any of its three axes reduces accuracy of fire.

(3) Accuracy of firing weapon.-Projectfles from weapons with a high degree of inherent accuracy follow more closely and consistently the mean trajectory upon which sighting is based, thereby increasing fire power of individual weapons. In all weapons that accuracy will vary with range. Other factors being equal, each combatant endeavors to gain the range that will be most favorable to the accuracy of his own weapons and least favorable to the accuracy of his opponent's weapons.

(4) Individual marksmanship.-A high degree of individual skill is an essential requirement for successful air fighting. Correct estimation of the range; accurate aiming; and, for the fixed gun installation, skillful piloting of the airplane are the most important factors. Camera guns should be used in conjunction with firing weapons for the purpose of instruction and improvement of technique of attack; a check of the developed film will indicate the cause of errors, such as firing at ineffective ranges and improper approach.

(5) Volume of fire~The rate of fire of each weapon and the total number of weapons available are factors beyond the tactical control of the combat commander in air combat. Volume of fire is tactically controlled by the proportion of the available weapons that are actually brought to bear upon the target. Every effort is made through maneuver and disposition to use the maximum number of weapons simultaneousIy.

18. Training.-TacticaI situations which may confront combat aviation units are so numerous and varied that definite tactical rules of procedure cannot be set down to cover them. It is for this reason that they must depend to a high degree on training and indoctrination for the successful accomplishment of their missions. Drilled in fundamental principles of aerial combat, the pilots are trained to think and act as a unit. The ultimate aim of indoctrination is to enable the commander to exercise tactical control with the minimum of commands. Indoctrination develops its maximum effectiveness when the same personnel work together over relatively long periods of time. Frequent transfers of personnel from one organization to another reduce the effectiveness of teamplay.

19. WEATHER CONDITIONS.-Weather conditions and the presence and location of the sun may have considerable influence on air fighting. These factors may affect both the ability to locate objectives and the possibilities for surprise. The principal advantages and disadvantages derived from these factors are as follows

a. Sun.-Approach to the objective from the direction of the sun sometimes permits the launching of a surprise attack. Surprise can normally be achieved in this manner only by individuals or small units. Immediately after sunset and immediately before sunrise, surprise may sometimes be effected by approaching in such a manner that the objective is silhouetted against the lighted sky.

b. Visibility.-The factor of visibility is opposite in its effect on offensive and defensive air operations. High visibility favors pursuit forces in locating targets for attack. Low visibility aids defensive formations or individual planes to evade pursuit interception. If interception is effected, low visibility facilitates surprise in the attack by fighter aviation.

c. Clouds.--Clouds afford an excellent place for concealment from which surprise attacks may be launched against enemy aircraft beneath. They also provide effective cover for air attack forces en route to and from their attack objective. Clouds will generally increase the security of these forces.

20. Altitude.-The reduction in atmospheric pressure and oxygen with increase in elevation seriously affects the normal mental and physical efficiency of the individual at higher altitudes. Mental alertness is reduced; physical activity becomes sluggish and difficult. The danger to the individual lies in the fact that he does not immediately sense these effects. While these physical and mental reactions from high altitude flying cannot be entirely eliminated except in pressure cabins, they are materially reduced through the proper use of oxygen provided in all combat aircraft.

CHAPTER 4:ORGANIZATION OF PURSUIT AVIATION

I. General --------------------------------------- 21

II. Components ----------------------------------- 22-25

SECTION I - GENERAL

21. BASIC ORGANIZATION.-Pursuit aviation is so organized as to facilitate its effective tactical employment in any part of the world. The basic tactical and administrative unit is the squadron. Squadrons vary in kind according to the type of aircraft with which they are equipped and according to their functions.

SECTION II - COMPONENTS

22. PURSUIT AIRPLANE.-The Pursuit airplane and its crew comprise the smallest fighting unit in pursuit aviation. The crew may number one or more depending on the type of airplane. Special types of pursuit airplanes are required because no one type can excel in all the various kinds of employment arid against all the different types of enemy aircraft which may be encountered. These special types may include

a. Interceptor, low altitude, single-seater.

b. Interceptor, high altitude, single-seater.

c. Night Interceptor, low altitude, multiseater.

d. Night interceptor, high altitude, multiseater.

e. Fighter, long range, single-seater.

f. Fighter, long range, multiseater.

23. SQUADRON ORGANIZATION.-The squadron is the smallest unit organized for independent action. It has both administrative and tactical functions. The equipment generally includes 25 airplanes, all of the same type, organized in three or four flights of from 4 to 8 airplanes each. The operating strength of a squadron is considered to be from 16 to 18 airplanes, the balance constituting a squadron reserve. For tactical control and to provide greater fighting power and security through mutual support and teamwork, each flight operates in "elements" of two or three airplanes each. Pursuit aircraft in daylight operations never operate singly if it can be avoided. The flight and element are purely tactical units. They are flexible and can be changed to meet requirements without disturbing seriously the squadron organization. For example, a squadron may operate 3 flights of two 3-plane elements each; 3 flights of three 2-plane elements each; or 4 flights of two 2-plane elements each.

24. TYPES OF SQUADRONS.-Squadrons which are organized for the prime purpose of maintaining and operating tactical aircraft are known as tactical squadrons. The fighting strength of a pursuit force is measured in terms of its tactical squadrons. One pursuit squadron at full strength may have from 30 to 60 officers and from 200 to 400 enlisted men. Other types of squadrons include

a. Headquarters squadron.

b. Interceptor control squadron,

c. Operational training squadron.

25. PURSUIT Groups.-a. A pursuit group is an organization composed of two or more types of squadrons. These squadrons are grouped together to facilitate command and administration and to permit continuous effort over a period of many days. Present pursuit groups are classed as

(1) Pursuit group (interceptor).

(2) Pursuit group (fighter).

(3) Pursuit group (composite).

b. The pursuit group, interceptor, is composed of-

(1) Headquarters and headquarters squadron, pursuit group.

(2) Air squadron, pursuit (I) -two or more.

(3) Air squadron, pursuit (night Interceptor). - Not yet authorized but under consideration far use in time of war.

(4) Air squadron, interceptor control.

c. The air squadron, interceptor control, is designed to install, maintain, and operate ground radio equipment for ground to air communication, with friendly pursuit units, by remote control; and to install, maintain, and operate direction finder equipment for tracking friendly pursuit units. The interceptor control squadron does not, as the name implies, exercise tactical control, but only provides the communication facilities on the ground through which tactical control in the air can be maintained by direction from a point on the ground. The maintenance of air-borne radio equipment is not a function of the interceptor control squadron, that being the function of the communication section of the squadron to which the airplanes are assigned. A flight of pursuit aircraft may be directed to an interception with an enemy formation by directions from an intercept officer located at the information center or control airdrome, using the communication network set up by the interceptor control squadron.

d. The pursuit group (fighter) is composed of

(1) Headquarters and headquarters squadron, pursuit group.

(2) Air squadron, pursuit (fighter)-two or more.

(3) Air squadron, interceptor control.

c. The pursuit group (composite) may be composed of a headquarters and headquarters squadron and any combination of other types of pursuit and interceptor squadrons including both interceptor and fighter units.