US Naval Aviation - Introduction to Naval Aviation - Chapter 9: Tactics and Flight Operations

US Navy: Naval Aviation Doctrine: Introduction to Naval Aviation, 1946 - Fighter Tactics

INTRODUCTION TO NAVAL AVIATION - RESTRICTED - ISSUED BY AVIATION TRAINING DIVISION OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF NAVAL OPERATIONS U. S. NAVY. * JANUARY 1946 * OPNAV 33-NY-85; Chapter IX. Tactics and Flight Operations.

3. FIGHTER TACTICS

Fighter tactics are both defensive and offensive.

Primarily, the fighter pilot is charged first with tile protection of his own forces - combat air patrol over surface formations, escorting bombers on attack strikes, or patrol over naval installations. Secondarily, he is charged with offensive operations for the destruction of enemy air, surface, and shore forces in fighter sweeps with all applicable tactical weapons.

Carrier fighters

The various tactical situations confronting a fighter pilot are likely to be so numerous that tactical doctrine for every possible situation would be impractical, if not impossible. Furthermore, tactics constantly change to meet new and changing situations.

It must be emphasized, however, that modern naval fighter tactics are based on established principles which preclude all consideration of individual air combat of the World War I dog-fighting school. Fighter tactics in the main are founded on combat concentration. The basic tactical organization of naval air forces was outlined in a previous section, with emphasis placed upon the combat team. This emphasis is even more important in fighter tactics than in almost any other type of tactics.

The fighter combat team is the four-plane division of two sections. All offensive and defensive air-to-air tactics are based on it. The individual pilot, as a fighting factor, has no place in these tactical considerations. Alone, the fighter pilot is considered a dead duck.

In general, all fighter tactics are founded on a few basic principles:

1. Superior marksmanship

2. Combat concentration

3. Superiority in disposition

Gunnery Marksmanship and Approach

The fighting airplane is essentially a flying platform for its fixed guns. Aerial fixed gunnery is not a simple subject, but its fundamental principle is that when the plane itself is aimed properly a hit will be obtained on the target.

The questions of aiming and firing are questions of where and when, otherwise called "deflection" and "range."

Deflection involves firing at a spot in space which will be occupied by an enemy aircraft at the time the bullet reaches it. The correct point of aim for any given target will depend upon its speed and its flight path. For example, the average velocity of a bullet during its first 1000 feet of travel is approximately 2500 feet per second. Thus, it takes four-tenths of a second to go 1000 feet. An airplane traveling 250 knots moves 169 feet in the same four-tenths of a second. A moving target obviously will have moved a good distance by the time the bullet gets to the spot where it was aimed. In a tail or "no deflection" shot, directly behind the target, this would not enter into the situation because the bullet would overtake the target. But, when firing from abeam, the relative movement of the target is corrected for by "leading" or aiming ahead of the target at the point it will occupy in space when the bullet arrives.

Determination of lead, or deflection, may be arrived at for any given speed and firing angle by the gun sight, which enables the pilot to compute quickly the relation-ship between speed and firing angle. Range is a matter of estimating the proper distance at which to open fire. The ring sight, calibrated in mil rings, also permits estimating range according to the type of target plane.

Fixed gunnery marksmanship, then, is a matter of proper deflection (the speed of the target and the angle of firing) and proper range (getting within effective firing distance).

The gunnery approach is the method of placing the pilot in a position to exploit his marksmanship. Making a run on a moving enemy target requires planning. In one sense it is another problem in deflection - flying the plane in relation to time and space in such a way as to come out of the maneuver with a clear shot at the target.

The choice of approach depends upon several things: the enemy's numerical strength, the time, position, and the existing tactical situation. Most important however, is recognition of the target - knowledge of its speed, maneuverability and fire power. By knowing the enemy's strong points and weak points, a type of gunnery run can be made to inflict the greatest damage with the least danger.

Regardless of the type of approach, its success depends upon timing. The basic idea is to arrive at the desired firing angle and effective range simultaneously.

The normal types of approach are:

1. The side approach. There are three types, all beginning from a level above the target and all executed by making an "S" turn toward the target.

(a) High side - this approach starts ahead and above the target on a 45° bearing to its line of flight. The firing position is reached about 30 ° above the level of the target.

(b) Flat side - almost the same as the high side, it may be started from a slightly lower level arriving at the firing position within 10° above the target level.

2. The overhead approach. This approach may be made either from the same or opposite heading of the target. The run is made from a roll into a dive at about 2000 feet altitude.

3. The head-on approach. This is self-evident from its designation.

4. The stern approach. This is the simplest of all fixed gunnery approaches since it provides a no-deflection shot and almost unlimited amount of firing time.

Combat Concentration

Combat concentration means keeping together. By keeping together - by operating as a team - fighters are able to afford each other mutual support defensively, and gain superior fire power and tactical advantage offensively.

The basis of combat teamwork is the two-plane section, and the division combat team of two two-plane sections. The Basic combat disposition of the section and the division - either defensive or offensive --takes the following form:

1. Offensive. A beam position with single aircraft of the section, or division sections, bracketing the enemy from each side. Bracketed, the enemy target is forced to turn toward one of the bracketing units regardless of the direction he takes, thereby becoming vulnerable to a gunnery run. Fighters make their runs simultaneously in a "weave." always reverting to the bracket position.

2. Defensive. This is a beam position like that from which offensive runs are started. It is used, however, for mutual support in the face of attack. When one plane or section is attacked from astern, both turn toward each other in a so-called "weave" and are instantly in position to shoot off the attacker from the other's tail. If both planes or sections are attacked simultaneously, each gets a shot at the other's attacker as their flight paths cross.

By utilizing the beam position, defensive tactics may be converted quickly to the offensive. In the case of a single plane, the rule is always to join up with friendly planes as quickly as possible. This is the best defense. Otherwise the rule is to turn into the attacker to make his deflection shot as difficult as possible, to outdive him, turn inside him and get on his tail, or to outrun him if he is backed up by superior numbers.

Offensive tactics against other fighters are based on three fundamental factors:

1. Altitude advantage - maintained at all times

2. Bracketing the enemy - forcing him to become a target

3. Combat concentration - using superior numbers by operating as a section or division combat unit

In naval fighter tactics the single fighter does not count, because he is only one-half a combat unit. Also, the target of a two-plane unit is always one plane, affording combat superiority of two to one. This does not mean that two Navy fighters cannot take on more than one enemy plane. It simply means that two of them, as a team, take on one enemy plane after another, concentrating on each in turn until all are eliminated. This is the meaning of combat concentration.

In maintaining altitude advantage, the rule of thumb is always to knock clown the highest target. The aircraft of a tactical unit - either section or division - coordinate their runs in successive attacks upon the highest target of any enemy formation. By successively diving on the highest target, a sort of "rotary mower" is created which cuts the enemy down so long as the tactical unit stays together as a team. Whenever the chain is broken. combat concentration is lost.

Combat Air Patrol

The primary mission of the fighter pilot is the destruction of enemy aircraft. This mission is performed largely through combat air patrol over his own forces. Functions of the combat air patrol are the interception and destruction of enemy aircraft at the maximum possible distance from the friendly base or force, the prevention of enemy attacks coming in unopposed, the breaking up of all attacks, and the shooting down of enemy "snoopers" before information can be obtained on the heading or nature of the friendly force.

The combat air patrol is stationed at various altitudes and positions according to the type of attack expected, some over the base or force and some at greater distances to meet special situations. In general, these positions may roughly be divided into the patrol station, on which the fighter orbits over his base; and the intercept station, on which the fighter may orbit or be vectored according to the expected attack.

Combat air patrol, however, rests on more than just the fighter aircraft involved. The fighter is just one link of a chain, which consists of:

1. Radar detection, the eye of the system which locates incoming attacks at sufficient range to give fighters time to get into position.

2. The fighter director, who plots the course of the enemy and brings his planes into position for the intercept.

3. Radio communications between fighter director and the intercept fighters.

4. The fighters themselves.

Fighter Escort

One of the most important functions of fighter aircraft is to escort attacking bombers safely to the target and back again. Fighter planes without bombs or torpedoes cannot sink enemy carriers or destroy enemy installations, but they can clear the way for the bombers to do the job.

Many types of escort formations may be used to protect an attack group, and the particular type depends upon the number of fighters available, the vulnerability of the bombers to be escorted, weather conditions, and the opposition expected.

Basically, however, all formations for fighter escort are similar. Each uses the stacking system of placing planes at different levels, so that regardless of where the enemy opens his attack on the formation, there will be escorting fighters in sufficient number to engage him quickly from an advantageous altitude and a favorable position.

To afford the utmost protection. a typical escort formation stacks a carrier's escorting fighters at four levels:

1. Close support, split into sections or divisions around 500 feet above, to either side, and slightly forward of the beam of the formation. This is for close action support.

2. Close cover, split into sections or divisions and astern of the bomber formation. It takes position about 1500 feet above close support and on either side of the attack group.

3. Intermediate cover, 2000 feet above close cover and 4000 feet above the attack group, and forward of the formation.

4. High cover, as high as possible while still keeping the attack formation in view. It is usually stacked at a level higher than any enemy combat patrol likely to be encountered.

Through this disposition, bombers are protected from close attack by planes which might have slipped past other levels; from flank and stern attacks; and from high altitude enemy combat patrols. Because of the extreme responsibility involved in flying high cover, it is usually led by the squadron commander. The leader of high cover must be able to refuse help to the lower fighters, if necessary to maintain an altitude advantage against strong enemy attacks or in case the attack is a decoy to pull high cover off position.

Cover is maintained during the actual attack as well as during the flight to the target. This is the time when enemy fighters do their utmost to break up the attack. and the fighters follow down after the bombers to fight off intercepting fighters.

This is the typical escort formation. There are variations, depending upon weather conditions and other factors, but the general principle remains the same.

Night fighter takes off into growing night

Other Fighter Functions

Aside from the basic procedures and tactics relating to the use of fighter aircraft, there are others of either a corollary or expanded nature. Actually, the modern fighter - and particularly the twin-engine fighter - is a versatile plane capable of a wide variety of missions.

One of the more important of these is night fighting. The procedures and tactics of night fighting rest upon radar and remote fighter direction for the interception of enemy attacks in cloud or darkness where visual contact is prevented. The night fighter pilot flies by instrument and fighter-direction over voice radio, and is vectored into position for a run by the fighter director from the carrier base. The actual firing range, however, is determined by the pilot from his airborne radar after he makes radar contact.

Other functions are photographic reconnaissance, ground and ship strafing, ground support, rocket attacks, and glide and minimum altitude bombing.

The night fighter pilot is an expert

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