Recognition: Field Manual, FM 21-80 - Recognition Training - 2. Training Methods

Chapter 2: TRAINING METHODS

Section I. GENERAL

10. INTRODUCTION. a. This chapter outlines basic teaching methods applicable to groups which must be trained without classrooms and with limited training aids, or to those with more elaborate teaching facilities.

b. In general, 2-inch by 2-inch transparent slides, Training Films, Film Strips, and picture or silhouette cards for use in opaque projectors are most suitable for classroom use. The functions of these training aids can be fulfilled for small groups without classroom facilities through use of suitable flash cards, posters, and models. Detailed instructions for use of specific training aids appear in chapter 3.

11. APPROACH TO THE SUBJECT. The immediate objective of recognition training is accomplished by giving a soldier the opportunity to see the objects, or simulations of them in the form of training aids, as often as possible. The soldier should see them from as many angles of approach and under as many varying conditions of visibility as training material and ingenuity of the instructor permit. At the same time, the soldier learns to associate a definite name or designation with each aircraft, vessel, or vehicle. Therefore, the most important phase of all formal recognition training is repetitive drill, during which the soldier speaks and writes the proper name or designation of each object as he sees it.

12. NOMENCLATURE, a. It is essential that certain basic nomenclature of aircraft, armored vehicles, or vessels be presented before other instruction. This nomenclature includes only basic terms to be used later by the instructor in describing the appearance and performance of the equipment. FM 30-30, 30-40, and 30-50 include adequate sections on nomenclature. To teach nomenclature, appropriate training films, film strips, or black-board sketches may be used. Lacking facilities to utilize these aids, the instructor indicates the parts to be learned on models, posters, or flash cards. Thirty minutes devoted to nomenclature of either aircraft, vessels, or vehicles is usually adequate. Additional special nomenclature instruction continues throughout training as needed.

b. It is desirable to explain the systems used in designating friendly and enemy materiel. For example, under the system of code names designating Japanese military aircraft, fighters are given masculine names, while bombers are given feminine names. In the United States Navy, battleships are named for states, cruisers for cities, destroyers for naval heroes, and so on. The systems of designating armored vehicles are relatively simple, once explained. These designation systems may be dis-

Figure 4. Repetitive drill!

cussed when the equipment of a particular country is introduced into the training program. Periodic short references to the system simplify the problem of association of designation and appearance of the object. See appendix for discussion of systems of designation.

c. Aircraft, some armored vehicles, and the upper surfaces of some naval vessels carry national markings or insignia. A brief discussion of these markings is included as a part of nomenclature instruction. Under most conditions of visibility and angles of approach, markings are indistinguishable at operational ranges. There have been instances in which national markings have been either omitted or copied by the enemy. For these reasons, emphasis in recognition training must be placed on the shape rather than the markings of objects. Do not depend on national markings. Appropriate recognition manuals illustrate the usual location and design of insignia.

13. INDOCTRINATION. a. The importance and usefulness of recognition training should be explained.

b. It is advisable to explain at the outset the general classes of equipment by size or employment, particularly in regard to vessels. For instance, the soldier must be able to distinguish a destroyer from a battleship or cruiser before he is introduced to specific naval craft.

c. Interspersed general indoctrination lectures dealing with the development of present friendly and enemy air forces, armored forces, and fleets, and accounts of their tactical and strategic employment sharpen interest in equipment under study. While it is a valuable addition to a training program, such background material must be considered as of secondary importance, primarily applicable in extended courses of instruction. If inclusion of such background lectures interferes with adequate repetitive drill, they should be omitted.

Section II. PRESENTATION

14. GENERAL. During the presentation, the soldier is introduced to the aircraft, armored vehicle, or naval vessel. Ordinarily, this introduction need not exceed 10 to 15 minutes and includes

a. A brief preliminary background discussion of the object.

b. A discussion of its appearance.

15. BACKGROUND. a. With the assistance of a model, slide or other visual aid, the instructor gives a 5- to 10-minute preliminary background presentation. This has two purposes: first, to arouse the interest of the soldier, and second, to present additional technical or tactical information to aid recognition. Consideration should be given to the branch of service and the weapons of the soldier, and the combat conditions under which he may meet the aircraft, vehicle, or vessel. In general, this background should include at least part of the following information:

(1) Type and mission.

(2) Theaters of operation, when applicable.

(3) Tactics, if known, and when affecting or aiding recognition.

(4) Reasons for peculiar design features which aid recognition. For example, big fin on B-17 increases high altitude stability; muzzle brake on "Tiger" tank decreases recoil; absence of "island" on "Hosho" class carriers permits take-off of large aircraft.

(5) Pertinent performance or technical data which aid recognition, or are sufficiently unusual to arouse interest.

b. Every effort is exercised to encourage the soldier's desire to learn. The subject must be dramatized, made interesting and colorful. Relevant humor, amusing anecdotes, and combat stories are desirable.

16. RECOGNITION DESCRIPTION. a. The instructor then utilizes silhouette views on posters or slides, or appropriate sketches or photographs when silhouettes are not available, for a 6- to 7-minute discussion of the appearance of the object from each basic view. Descriptions are primarily nontechnical, limited to major recognition features, stressing form, proportions, over-all appearance; and, other factors which contribute to recognition at maximum ranges. The general impression or "personality" must be stressed frequently.

b. While it is expected that eventually the soldier will be able to recognize the object from all angles, without dependence upon any single feature, it is advisable to use a few prominent features as a "crutch" until an initial familiarity has been acquired. To illustrate, a soldier may learn first to recognize a new acquaintance by one outstanding feature, such as a bald head or horn-rimmed spectacles. In time, however, he will recognize the individual with a hat or without glasses. Likewise, after the soldier has encountered the plane, vehicle, or vessel in a number of drills, he does not have to rely on these "crutches."

Figure 5. An arrangement of training aids for the initial presentation.

c. Attention must be directed to the training aid and not to the instructor.

d. Throughout background and recognition introduction, the name of the object is kept in the mind of the soldier. If a black-board is available, the name and designation of the object are printed thereon in large letters, with such other information to be remembered; for example, in some branches, the wing span of aircraft. As a blackboard substitute, a large piece of card-board may be used. During his lecture, the instructor repeats the object name and designation frequently.

17. SUMMARY. a. Having described the object in some detail, the instructor summarizes the lecture briefly, reviews the type and mission of the equipment, calls attention again to outstanding features, stresses the over-all impression, and makes every effort to leave a well-integrated mental picture.

Figure 6. Stress large features.

b. The summary is concluded by showing models, slides, photographs, or flash cards of the material to demonstrate how the basic views lead to recognition at other angles of approach.

Section III. DRILLS AND REVIEWS

18. GENERAL. a. To familiarize the soldier with the aircraft, armored vehicles, or naval vessels under study, repetitive practice in spotting and continuous review of material covered in prior training sessions are imperative.

b. Each period of instruction in which new objects are presented must include a review drill. Such drill incorporates new material as well as that covered in previous classes. At intervals during the training program, periods are devoted exclusively to review drills. For preparation and composition of the review drill, see section V, chapter 5.

19. FORM. a. The following drill form is suggested:

(1) Using slide and film strip projector PH-222, flash cards, opaque projector, shadowgraph, or other training aids, at the instructor's command: 1. READY, 2. NOW, the training aid is shown on the screen or displayed for a period not exceeding the time limit desired for the troops being trained. (For ground units: 1 to 3 seconds; for air crew personnel: as tactical requirements and training equipment dictate.) The exposure time is gradually reduced throughout training.

(2) Men are allowed a few seconds to write answers.

(3) At the instructor's command: 1. READY, 2. CHECK, he shows the training aid again and the men respond in unison with the answers they have written.

(4) The instructor verifies or corrects the mass response. If the response is poor, the instructor then makes any necessary comments. Students check their answers.

b. Such drills require the soldier to use a maximum number of senses. He looks, writes, looks again, speaks, and then checks his answer while the image is fresh in his mind.

c. The review drill can be given rapidly. Up to 50 slides can be covered in a 1/2-hour period by a competent instructor.

d. This general procedure may be followed, whatever the training aid employed.

20. EXPOSURE TIME. a. Recognition training must enable the spotter to make positive recognition before the target reaches the operational range of his weapon. Exposures of the training aid on drills should be relatively short to make the soldier realize that in combat he will have only a brief period in which to recognize and; engage the target. For antiaircraft weapons the minimum operational time limit may vary from 1 to 3 seconds. Requirements for other weapons may differ.

b. As a teaching and testing aid, various units have used very short exposures, from 1/25 to 1/100 of a second. These short exposures are obtained by means of special speed shutters or improvised shutters. (See par. 53.) The use of high speed exposures accomplishes two things.1

(1) It prevents the student from concentrating on small insignificant details.

(2) Under certain circumstances, it acts as a valuable stimulus to competition.

c. The high-speed exposures of 5 second or less can be used only with close-up views. With such views, the use of the shutter may stimulate interest in material otherwise too easy for the state of training of the class. Properly handled, the shutter is a useful device for maintaining interest and holding attention. Speed of exposure is not an end in itself. The proper goal of all recognition training is positive recognition at maximum ranges in a reasonably short time.

d. With this goal in mind, it is preferable to maintain operational speeds of exposure and increase the difficulty of training material rather than to increase speed of recognition on easy material. A soldier who is able to recognize an easy view at 1/100 second is not necessarily capable of recognizing a difficult slide or the real object in 100 seconds. (The increasing difficulty of the material must be based on increased apparent range, decreased apparent visibility, extreme angle of approach, and not upon poor training aids.)

21. SIZE OF IMAGE. When slides or opaque projectors are properly used for review drills, the size of the frame on the screen should appear, to a soldier in the back of the class-room, no larger than three times the width of his thumb held at arm's length. This general rule may be applied to all training aids. As units become more advanced in their training, the size of the object within the frame should gradually become smaller. If the selection of slides or other training aids is limited, this may mean that the size of the frame on the screen must be reduced to obtain a smaller image. If it is impossible to have good illumination on models, posters, or flash cards used for drills, the relative size of the object may be somewhat larger.

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1 It must be realized that very short exposures are deceptive. A short but brilliant image will leave an impression in the eye for a second or more. This "after image," or persistence of vision, makes the successive "flashes" of movies appear as continuous motion. The trend is now away from exposures of 1/50 to 1/100 second. Exposures of 1 to 1/10 second are more favored.

Section IV. "CONTRAST" REVIEWS

22. GENERAL. a. The good instructor, in his presentation and later comments, concentrates only on those combinations of shapes which make the whole aircraft, vessel, or vehicle different from any other. However, after a considerable number of objects have been introduced to a class, some men may complain that "I always mix up and " ----  or ---------- "That view looked just like a ----------     ." A study of drill or test papers will show the instructor which objects are being consistently confused. When this situation exists, a "contrast" review may be given.

b. No two aircraft, vessels, or vehicles look exactly alike in any position. The purpose of a "contrast" review is to demonstrate this fact and to remove persistent confusion of types. The review is conducted by placing two similar training aids side by side, to illustrate the two objects confused in the same relative angle of approach.

c. In all such reviews, whatever the training aid employed, the instructor must not make the error of building the "contrast" between two types on small differences, but must concentrate on "over-all impression" and recognition features which are clearly visible at maximum ranges. It must be emphasized that this is contrast, not comparison drill. Similarities are not mentioned by the instructor. The student is probably already aware of them.

d. "Contrast" drill is the most difficult type of teaching to confront the instructor. Instructors should attempt this type of drill only after careful preparation. The benefits of properly conducted "contrast" review drill are great in proportion to the time expended.

e. Due to the extremely concentrated nature of this type of instruction, it is best given as a portion of another period. Periods of this type of drill should not exceed 15 to 20 minutes in length, are limited only to types actually confused, and should not introduce types not yet studied.

23. SHADOWGRAPHS. a. Because shadowgraphs (see par. 50) show only large features and proportions, and may present objects in any angle of approach, they are particularly well adapted to contrast reviews.

b. The review may be conducted as a regular model shadow drill except that two models are used at a time, arranged in identical attitudes. Following the "check," the instructor emphasizes the differences which may be apparent in those views.

c. Exposure time should be about twice that of the usual view, but normally not less than 3 seconds.

24. SKETCHING. a. Another type of contrast review makes use of the most commonly available training aid, the blackboard. The instructor may make rough sketches (see sec. V) of types frequently confused.

b. During such reviews, soldiers sketch along with the instructor, on any available paper.

c. A sketching review demands most careful preparation by the instructor. Not only must he prepare sketches as "notes," but he should practice sketching the views selected, from memory, so that during the review he will make minimum reference to notes.

d. Here again the emphasis must be on differences in large features and proportions, with only passing reference to such minor features (in the case of aircraft) as turrets and small air intakes, or (in the case of tanks) hatches and the location of auxiliary armament.

25. POSTERS. Two sets of posters (see par. 41), mounted on two easels, may be utilized for a "contrast" review. Always have both objects under discussion exhibited to the class.

26. OPAQUE PROJECTOR. Silhouettes or photographs to be contrasted may be mounted on pieces of cardboard, two to each card, for projection in an opaque projector (see pars. 47 and 52).

Figure 7. "Contrast" model shadows. Do 217 (above) and B-25.

27. FILMS. Training films such as "Quizcraft" films are, in effect, "contrast" reviews. Such films may be used to supplement the type of review described in preceding paragraphs.

Section V. SKETCHING

28. GENERAL. a. As recognition training is a process of fixing in the mind lasting visual images which the soldier will be able to remember in combat, the greater the number of different means which can be found to "groove in" those images, the more accurate and lasting they will be. Sketching is one of the most valuable methods of deepening this mental impression.

b. If a soldier is asked to study a silhouette for 5 or to minutes, his mind will begin to wander within a minute. If he sketches the object, however, he will be forced to concentrate all attention on it. In the act of sketching, more than in any intrinsic value of the completed sketch, lies the great value of this method of training.

c. Few men are endowed with sketching ability, and most of them instinctively recoil from any attempt at "art." Sketching as employed in recognition training, however, has nothing to do with "art." By following the simple rules outlined in succeeding paragraphs, any soldier will be able to make creditable sketches with short practice.

d. All instructors should practice sketching of aircraft, ships, and tanks so as to be proficient enough to enable them to sketch on the blackboard to illustrate lectures on nomenclature, introductory discussions on recognition features, and discussions which are made to clear up confusion between similar types of aircraft, ships, or tanks.

29. WHAT TO SKETCH. The soldier is encouraged to sketch particularly those planes, tanks, or naval vessels with which he has the most difficulty in drills, reviews, and tests. He first sketches using a silhouette as a guide. Then he sketches from memory. After making each sketch from memory, he compares his effort with the silhouette to discover mistakes. When, after some practice, he is able to make creditable sketches from memory, he will have little further difficulty with those particular objects.

30. EMPHASIS. Emphasis in sketching, as in all recognition training, should be on specific large features and proportions which make recognition possible at maximum ranges.

31. MATERIALS. Always use a pencil (never a pen), and a large piece of paper, at least 8 by 10 inches, for a set of sketches on a given aircraft, vessel, or vehicle. A piece of paper folded will serve as a straightedge, if rulers are not available.

32. SKETCHING AIRCRAFT. a. General. Figure 8 points out a few basic proportions. Notice that there is a definite relation between the size and position of all the major parts. For example, the fuselage is roughly five times as long as it is thick, while the wing has a chord equal to about 1/3 the length of the fuselage. Bearing this in mind, three view sketches of the same plane, a P-47, will, be developed

Figure 8. Basic proportions of P-47.

b. Head-on view. (1) Lay out the basic proportions first. (Always do this, or a misshapen monstrosity looking little like the aircraft will be the result.) Box in the fuselage (fig. 9(1)).

Figure 9. Head—on view.

(2) Mark up the amount of dihedral, or the amount each wing rises above a line drawn through the base of the wing roots (fig. 9(2)).

(3)Draw in the wings and the shape of the fuselage (fig. 10(1))

(4) Draw in the greenhouse and lay out the tail and fin surfaces (fig. 10(2)).

5) Add the details last (fig. 10(3)). This is of utmost importance. If a good frame work for the details has been drawn, they will be easy to add. If the construction of the framework is not in true proportion, the drawing will never look like the aircraft it is intended to represent, no matter how much detail is added. After the drawing is completed, erase the "construction limes" which should have been made very lightly.

Figure 10. Head—on view.

c. Plan view. (1) Lay out the center lines of the wing and fuselage, marking the ends of both (fig. 11(1) ).

(2) Construct three rectangles to show proportions of wings, fuselages, and tail surfaces (fig. 11(2)).

Figure 11. Plan view.

(3) Rough in the shape of the wings, fuselage, and tail surfaces (fig. 12(1)).

Figure 12. Plan view.

(4) Rough in greenhouse, add details, erase construction lines (fig. 12(2) ),

(5) If any attempt is made to eliminate some of the steps shown, difficulties will be encountered. As already mentioned, this is not "art" but rather a logical series of mechanical steps by which one can build, almost automatically, a reasonable drawing of an airplane.

d. Side view. (i) Draw the center line of the fuselage and mark off the relative positions of the engine, wing, and tail assembly (fig. 13(1)).

Figure 13. Side view.

(2) Construct a rectangle to show the proportions of the fuselage. Construct a second rectangle to mark the proportions of the fin and rudder. Box off the wing, engine, and greenhouse (fig. 13(2)).

(3) Draw in the fuselage line, add the wing, fin, rudder, engine, and greenhouse (fig. 13(3)).

e. Larger aircraft, both twin and four-engined, can be sketched by following the same general procedure. Lay out the proportions, construct rectangles for the larger shapes, round out curves, and finally fill in the details.

33. NAVAL VESSEL SKETCHES. Sketches of naval vessels for ground troops need be of side views only. For aircrews, sketches of plan views showing beam-width ratio are also important. The method of obtaining the proper proportions, by selecting a reference distance (as the height of the hull above the water line), comparing other distances to it, and blocking out proportions before drawing in the final outline, is similar to the method used in sketching aircraft. Sketches of naval vessels following the general form of "bump" charts, need carry even less detail than aircraft sketches.

34. TANK SKETCHES. Sketches of armored vehicles (side, front, and top views) may contain some detail, but should be concentrated on overall appearance and not on any particular feature. The general method for achieving proper proportions is the same as in sketching aircraft.

35. SKETCHING FOR INSTRUCTION. The instructor may make effective use of the blackboard in clearing points of confusion between two or more types, as indicated by questions from the class, or from a study of drill papers. A quick sketch, emphasizing or even caricaturing differences between two types with some points of similarity, will save time, and will add interesting variety to a class period. Colored chalk may be used effectively to emphasize recognition differences. Before attempting to sketch before a class, however, an instructor must be sufficiently adept to sketch "free hand" (par. 32). If sketching is laborious the class loses interest. Practice develops this ability.