Air Fronts: Recognition Training and Manuals - FM 21-80 Recognition Training

Recognition: Field Manual, FM 21-80 - Recognition Training - 5. Planning Training Program

77. OBJECT. The object of this chapter is to outline and illustrate for staff officers and instructors the special factors to be considered in preparing a recognition training program. (See TM 21-250.)

78. NATURE OF RECOGNITION TRAINING PROGRAM. a. Recognition of aircraft, vessels, or vehicles is a subject which never can be completely or permanently mastered. New equipment is constantly being introduced and greater skill always can be developed on current operational types previously studied. Thus the planning of recognition training must be directed as far to the future as practicable, to include not only the immediate needs of the unit, but also, to include future provision for essential review and possible changes in materiel.

b. The training program must be designed to fit the present knowledge and limited rate of learning of men to be trained. Recognition training depends to a large extent upon training aids not accessible for spare-time study. Attempts to "crowd on work," in the belief that the men will gain the missing skill through spare-time study or unsupervised daily practice, are usually unsatisfactory.

c. In most instances the aircraft, vessels, or vehicles to be taught are specified by appropriate commanders. The order of presentation to include objects presented in each period of instruction may be specified. Even although relieved of this responsibility, the instructor must make detailed plans on the precise manner of presentation and drill of each item covered in the training schedule. This makes most efficient use of allotted time and available training aids.

d. All personnel concerned with planning should be familiar with the general principles outlined in paragraph 2, TM 21-250. Planning will be based on the principles described therein, with consideration given to the special factors hereinafter described.

e. Properly planned instruction makes a soldier willing and anxious to learn. Poorly planned instruction results in discouragement, disinterest, and a superficial knowledge. The essential planning of instruction, whether for the whole program or for the daily class period, is the most important task undertaken by the instructor.

79. NATURE OF UNIT. The nature of the unit is the primary consideration in the selection of training material. For example, armored units whose armor, mobility, and shock action may enable them to break through the enemy lines need to know all enemy armored vehicles and the unarmored or "thin-skinned" vehicles ,which may be encountered in such a break-through. In contrast, units whose secondary mission is antimechanized defense can concentrate on the more heavily armored types which may attack. Due to the limited range of infantry antiaircraft weapons, infantry troops should concentrate aircraft recognition on low-flying types. However, it is emphasized that the responsibility of intelligence observers extends beyond the possible targets of the parent unit. Recognition training for this specialized personnel should be broadened accordingly.

80. TRAINING LISTS. a. Once the general types of vehicles, vessels, or aircraft to be taught have been selected, it is essential that only types actually or potentially operational in actual or potential theater of operation for the unit be selected for instruction. To meet the need for this information, various agencies periodically publish training lists of aircraft, vessels, and vehicles. It is essential that the latest be consulted.

b. To simplify further the problem of instruction, theater commanders at times issue specific operational lists for their theaters.

81. DIRECTIVES. Appropriate commanders frequently issue general or specific directives, setting forth the minimum requirements in aircraft, vehicles, or vessels to be taught. Appropriate current War Department training circulars may prescribe additional requirements.

82. PRETESTS. After the general requirements of the unit are determined and appropriate Training Circulars and directive procured, it is desirable to give the troops a pretest, or to examine past training schedules to estimate the present state of training. Such a pretest, if properly designed, indicates which aircraft, vessels, or vehicles may be minimized or omitted in the training program. Just as important, it discloses the material on which most attention is required. Even if directive from higher authority prescribes the objects, and the periods in which they are to be taught, the instructor will find the pretest of value in planning proper presentation and drill emphasis.

83. TIME AVAILABLE. Time available for training definitely limits the number of objects which can be taught in the training program. To compute the total time necessary for a training program (including presentations, reviews, drills, and tests) allow from 6/10 hour to hour for each aircraft, vessel, or vehicle to be included. It is better to teach thoroughly only ten important aircraft, vessels, or vehicles than to confuse the soldier with twice that number.

84. SPACING OF INSTRUCTIONAL PERIODS. Recognition training, like physical training, will be given in daily short periods over an extended time, if best results are to be expected. It is more efficient to have a daily class of 1 hour for 1 week than to have a 5- or 6-hour class on 1 day per week. When new material is being introduced, it is preferable to have short classes on successive days rather than too many days without instruction. An acceptable minimum course to teach 30 aircraft, vessels, or vehicles consists of 20 hours of instruction given as daily 1-hour classes, 5 or 6 days per week, in successive weeks. To crowd too many hours of recognition training into any 1 day results in a decrease in the total number of objects that can be taught effectively.

NOTE. This section is devoted to the above phases of scheduling and is of particular interest to appropriate staff officers and instructors.

85. UNIT SCHEDULE. The battalion is the basic unit in the distribution of many training aids. In this section a battalion training schedule is considered. The usual unit training

schedule shows such information as is essential to the proper inspection and coordination of training. In addition to such local details as location of classes, uniform, and similar information, the schedule includes-.

a. Aircraft, vessels, or vehicles to be taught. This facilitates coordination of training aids.

b. The type of class and location, whether usual recognition class introducing new material, or a test, review, or film period. This makes possible proper rotation of classroom space.

c. Training films to be shown. (Permits proper rotation of films, similar aids, and projection facilities among subordinate units.)

86. NUMBER OF NEW TYPES INTRODUCED EACH DAY. a. Three new aircraft, vessels, or vehicles, is about the maximum number that can be introduced successfully in any 1 hour of instruction.

b. Exception to a above is made only when the men to be trained are particularly interested, extremely intelligent, have previous knowledge of the subject, and available time for a study and drill. Such men may be found in a refresher course for recognition officer-instructors.

87. PERIODS NOT INTRODUCING NEW MATERIAL. a. Soldiers who have had no previous recognition training need indoctrination, nomenclature instruction, and a pretest. This is included in the first periods of instruction.

b. Periods are included in which no material is introduced. This gives a "break" in the steady increase of new items to be learned, allows time for review and drill, for test, or for training films. The frequency of review and test periods depends upon the progress of the class. The first such period is given between the seventh and tenth periods of instruction. Other such periods follow at more frequent intervals, since new aircraft, vessels, or vehicles are being continually added in the daily drills. (See sec. V.)

88. ORDER OF PRESENTATION. a. After the number and spacing of periods is determined, periods for reviews, indoctrination and tests tentatively set, then actual order of presentation of the aircraft, vessels, or vehicles is determined.

b. In selecting the order of presentation, two factors must be considered. Because at least 40 percent of each hour is devoted to drill covering all material to date, those objects introduced first are most familiar at the end of the course. This may seem to indicate that the more difficult aircraft, vessels, or vehicles might be introduced first. They must not be, for to introduce the most difficult item in the first or second lecture discourages the student. The best arrangement is to present easy material in the first few lectures. When this is mastered and the technique of learning becomes familiar, proceed at once to the difficult material. It has been found that single engine fighters, medium tanks, and destroyers require more drill than four engine aircraft, heavy tanks, or battleships. Flying boats, light tanks, and aircraft carriers are easiest to learn.

c. Aircraft, vessels, and vehicles can be taught in national groups or they can be taught across national lines. Mixing nationalities has two advantages.

(1) Daily spotting drills then present an approximation of combat conditions in that the material presented may be either enemy or friendly, from the start of the course.

(2) This arrangement allows the most difficult material of all nations to be introduced early in the course, and thus presents equal opportunity for maximum drill and review.

d. When the factors discussed in preceding paragraphs are considered, the choice of aircraft, vessels, or vehicles to be presented in the same instructional period is not critical—particularly after the first few classes. In these early periods care must be taken to build the confidence of the student in his own ability and in the teaching methods employed. The actual selection of the two or three types to be presented in each period is now made.

e. It is advantageous when a small number of items is to be presented, to introduce widely differing types of material in the same instructional periods. For example, pair off B-24 and P-47, or the German 8 wheeled armored car and the United States Sherman (M4 medium) tank, or the "North Carolina" battleship and a "Porter" class destroyer. This arrangement has an advantage, particularly in initial lectures, that neither of the items presented can be mistaken for the other. If large numbers of items are to be presented in this manner, frequent "contrast" drills and reviews will be necessary when material similar to that presented earlier appears in later periods.

f. The method opposite to e above provides the introduction of similar aircraft, vessels, or vehicles in the same and successive class periods. To start with easy types (to build the confidence of the student) is successful procedure. It is particularly applicable for the teaching of large numbers of items. (For ex-ample, in initial lectures cover "four-engine bombers and trans-ports" or "heavy tanks," or "battleships.") The instructor then proceeds immediately to the most difficult materials; single-engine fighters, medium tanks, or destroyers. The easiest type of material remaining, such as "flying boats," "light tanks," or "aircraft carriers," is introduced last. This technique has advantages. It permits the instructor to consider all the aircraft, vessels, or vehicles of a certain tactical group on the same or successive days and thus to build his "interest" discussion along these lines, or to introduce any general tactical information of interest or aid in recognition. Enlisted men like to know how their own equipment compares with that of the enemy in appearance and capabilities. When all the difficult material is included early in the course, the maximum number of days may be used for repetitive drill and review to "groove in" material. Each aircraft, vessel, or vehicle is taught as a separate "personality."

89. HOUR SCHEDULES. The preceding paragraphs show how the material is selected, how presentation periods and the periods for review are determined. The hour remains to be specified. If classrooms are available, a PH-222 and slides, model shadow devices, or opaque projectors are best used for drill, but require a shaded room, or in the case of opaque projectors a dark room (unless a rear projection unit is used). To avoid drowsiness and inattentiveness (especially on hot days) periods of recognition instruction should not be scheduled immediately after meals, or immediately after periods of prolonged physical exercise.

90. FILMS. In many locations, it will be impossible to show recognition films in the classroom or area used for instruction. Films are shown conveniently to groups as large as a company, providing a suitable theater is available. The usual precautions in the use of films must be observed. If "free" time, which cannot be used to good advantage for questions and discussion, is available in the film period, such free time may be used for review drill with projector PH-222 and slides, large opaque projector, or shadowgraph flash cards. The type of drill described in paragraph 19 can be used with up to 200 men. If the enthusiastic response of 200 men at the command CHECK interferes with nearby training activities, the instructor calls on sections in turn. (This process fosters competitive spirit and stimulates interest.)

91. SIZE OF CLASS. a. If all the men of a unit are in one concentrated location, as in a training center, size of the class is determined by the availability of training aids, instructors, and the necessity for correlation with other types of training. The ideal size for a class is 35 to 50 men. The instructor gives enough individual attention to sustain the interest of the slower students. The slow student usually begins to learn more rapidly if his interest is sustained until he masters a dozen or more aircraft, vessels, or vehicles. The instruction is informal, and the instructor paces his teaching to the learning rate of the group.

b. If training aids and instructors are not available in sufficient number, or if adequate rotation cannot be arranged, companies or units of similar size are taught as a class. This arrangement is not as effective as the platoon size class, but can be handled by a competent instructor. It is desirable to appoint additional "assistant-instructors" from among exceptionally able men of the group to coach the slower men.

c. If a unit is in field position, ten men may be the greatest number that can be assembled for class. Instruction is most informal and flexible. It allows the instructor to deal with individual problems. No matter how small the class, a detailed training schedule must be prepared by the unit and by the instructor. Appropriate inspection of training is most essential.

d. To summarize, if a sufficient number of instructors and training aids are available and other scheduled training permits, classes are limited to platoon size. The necessity for either very large, or very small classes is no excuse to neglect recognition training.

92. GENERAL. The instructor usually receives a unit training schedule containing the information discussed in section III. Lacking this, he proceeds as outlined in the preceding section to arrive at the same general plan. Upon the basis of the unit training schedule, he now prepares a lesson plan for each hour's instruction, regardless of the size of the class to be taught. He follows the general principles outlined in chapter 2, TM 22-250, and, as closely as time and available training aids permit, the additional requirements noted in succeeding paragraphs.

93. TRAINING AIDS. Relatively few training aids are available for distribution on the basis of the company or smaller unit, therefore, it is essential that recognition instructors make definite prior arrangements for rotation of training aids and available equipment (when distributed on the basis of one set per battalion or larger unit) if such rotation is not self-evident from the unit training schedule.

94. TIME FOR PRESENTATION AND DRILL. a. In the first meetings, the presentation of new aircraft, vessels, or vehicles is but slightly longer than 10 minutes, and not more than 15 minutes. At least 10 minutes is allotted for each new type introduced. In early classes drills will be short. More time will be required for nomenclature and tactical discussion, and for explanation of procedure and review.

b. As a general rule, 40 percent of each hour is devoted to drill or review. A typical 50-minute period is as follows:

95. SAMPLE SCHEDULE. a. The following sample schedule may be used as a guide for both instructors and staff officers. It is based on the presentation of 30 aircraft in 20 hours, in daily 1-hour classes, 5 days per week for a 4-week period. Armored vehicles may be substituted in this schedule, but if large numbers of difficult naval craft are to be taught (for example, destroyers), it is essential either to cover fewer types or to extend the time allotted. A longer or shorter course will follow similar form.

b. The following schedule does not indicate the specific air-craft, vessels, or vehicles to be taught. The content and order of presentation is determined by the instructor or appropriate staff officer as outlined in sections II and II of this chapter.

Hour	Conference	Review	Drill or test
1	Nomenclature, 30 min.		30 view pretest, 20 min
2.	3 planes, 36 min	Review, 4 min	10 view drill, 10 min.
3	3 planes, 30 min	Review, 5 min.	20 view drill, 15 min.
4	3 planes, 30 min	Review, 5 min.	20 view drill, 15 min.
5	3 Trng. Films, 30 min		33 view test, 20 min.
6	2 planes, 24 min	Review, 6 min	33 view drill, 20 min
7	2 planes, 24 min.	Review, 6 min	33 view drill, 20 min.
8	2 planes, 24 min	Review, 6 min.	40 view drill, 20 min.
9	2 planes, 24 min.	Review, 6 min.	40 view drill, 20 min.
10	Plane contrast, 30 min		40 view test, 20 min
11	2 planes, 24 min	Review, 6 min	40 view drill, 20 min.
12	2 planes, 24 min.	Review, 6 min.	40 view drill, 20 min.
13	2 planes, 24 min.	Review, 6 min.	40 view drill, 20 min.
14	2 planes, 24 min	Review, 6 min	40 view drill, 20 min.
15	2 Quizcraft films, 20 min		60 view test, 30 min.
16	2 planes, 24 min.	Review, 6 min.	40 view drill, 30 min.
17	2 planes, 24 min.	Review, 6 min	40 view drill, 20 min.
18	1 plane, 10 min	Review, 15 min	50 view drill, 25 min.
19	Plane contrast, 20 min.		60 view drill, 30 min.
20			80 view test, 50 min.

96. GENERAL. The sample training schedule outlined in paragraph 95 is the framework upon which the instructor plans the utilization of available training aids. These aids are divided among presentation, drills, reviews, and tests in such manner as to develop maximum familiarity with aircraft, vessels, or vehicles included in the training program and to give variation to the course. Detail planning and selection of training aids often determines the success or failure of instruction. Required time is allotted to the instructor for this essential phase of preparation.

97. CHOICE OF TRAINING AIDS. a. The capabilities, use, and special application of the various types of training aids are discussed in chapter 3. Before the detail planning of each hour begins, it is necessary for the instructor to survey his available training aids and decide upon the techniques of instruction to be used for the various scheduled presentations, tests, reviews, and drills. No one training aid or type of instruction is used to the exclusion of all others. A variety of training aids and instructional techniques adds interest to class periods.

b. The instructor selects from his supply the most effective training aids to be used in presentation of new objects, and in reviews, if necessary. Preferably the same views are not used in drills.

c. If possible, the instructor selects the views to be used for the final test. These are not used for other instruction if the test is to be reliable. (See ch. 6 for details.)

d. With the remaining training material, the instructor plans the complete series of drills and reviews. Thus, he makes arrangements sufficiently far in advance to assure availability of Film Strips, films, and similar material. He discovers any lack of material on a specific object and begins to improvise or procure the missing material. It is only through advance planning that the instructor can assure

(2) Recognition practice always commensurate with the duties and state of training of the soldier.

98. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL. a. Training material is divided into four general classifications according to difficulty:

(2) Elementary. Less colorful than a above but still easy and a good approximation of the basic silhouettes.

(3) Intermediate. Representative of the aircraft in more difficult angles of approach but still indicating good conditions of visibility and intermediate ranges.

(4) Advanced. Representative of the most difficult angles of approach, range, and worst conditions of visibility under which the soldier will be expected to recognize the object in combat.

b. Representative samples of recognition photographs are illustrated in figures 48, 49, and 50. The first step in planning is to sort all material into the above five general classifications after laying aside that selected for presentation and test. (See also par. 14.) Judgment of degree of difficulty of training material must be based on how accurately it represents the difficulty of a combat recognition problem and not upon poor photography, distortion, or poor reproduction. The latter type material should not be used.

99. ROTATION. The second step is to sort all the material available on each plane after grading as outlined in paragraph 98, by the various angles of approach; incoming, crossing, over-head, and intermediate. Then the slides and other material for each plane to be taught must be laid out, one plane at a time, in sequence from elementary to advanced, in such manner that a definite but not stereotyped rotation of angles of approach is maintained. Further selection is made; this rotation is now altered to insure that the emphasis in angles of approach is appropriate to the type of troops being trained. For example, troops armed with the caliber .50 machine gun on ground mounts should concentrate drill on low-level ground-attack planes in front-quarter and head-on angles of approach.

100. FREQUENCY. Once the sequence of drill material in degree of difficulty and rotation of views has been established, the frequency of showing is determined. The exact class period in which each slide or other training aid is to be shown must be selected. In general, the new material introduced appears at least once or twice in the drill on the day on which it is introduced, and then in three or four successive drills. After the first three or four drills, the frequency of inclusion on this plane in drills gradually decreases, but appears occasionally until the end of the course. A logical pattern must be used. A stereotyped pattern must be avoided or the soldier will have a basis for prediction of the contents of the drill in advance. Obviously, those planes last introduced in the training program must appear more frequently in the final drills. Thus these final drills are longer, but may be given more rapidly to the greater familiarity with the material and methods. The general principles of frequency set forth above need further modification to give appropriate emphasis to the most important or most difficult types. Any trained instructor or expert spotter can make necessary adjustments.

101. REPETITION. Slides or flash cards are repeated if necessary, preferably not more than twice. In general, three times represents the maximum number of repetitions before the aver-ge soldier memorizes the slide, photograph, or flash card. Repetitions of the same pictorial training aid are spaced by the greatest interval consistent with the difficulty of the material.

102. TOTAL NUMBER OF SHOWINGS. The more times a soldier can be drilled on a particular airplane, tank, or ship, the more familiar it will become. Provided a gradual increase in the difficulty of the recognition problem can be maintained, there is no upper limit on the amount of drill that can be given. In a course such as that outlined in section III, 40 recognition problems on each object presented on drills and tests represents an average number, with emphasis on more difficult and more important craft, and proportionately less on easy or unimportant types.

103. SUBSTITUTION. Obviously, insufficient training material will be available to give the amount of practice, outlined in paragraph 11, on all planes included in the training schedule¹'. Substitutions may be made. Training Films covering aircraft on which little training material is available are given preference in the schedule. Model shadow drill may be used. If issue models are not available, paper models may be constructed, using posters as a basis of plans. Paper models are satisfactory for representation of certain angles of approach. Flash cards constructed from any available photographs may be used in a small class, in "pass-around" drills or in an opaque projector. The ingenuity and initiative of the instructor must be exercised to fill gaps in training material. The lack of a large variety of training material is no acceptable excuse for indifferent instruction or poorly planned drills.

1 It should be noted, however, that use of the opaque projector and shadowgraph makes available an almost unlimited number of different views of a given aircraft, ship, or armored vehicle.

104. NOTE ON SLIDES. In most instances, sets of slides are not issued in quantities to permit each instructor a set to be broken up and permanently rearranged for drills by the method above outlined. Instead, the instructor obtains the set for an evening, arranges his material and makes a record of the numbers of the slides to be used in each drill. To show only a random selection of slides as a drill is to waste the time of instructor and students.

105. DUDS. To prevent guessing and to keep the student from attempting to arrive at the correct answer through consideration of the planes previously shown in the drill, an occasional unknown, new training aid is introduced. Such an object is designated "Dud" or "Ringer" for purpose of mass response at the command: 1. READY, 2. CHECK. (See par. 19a(3)). Two cautions should be exercised.

a. The total number of "Duds" on any one drill must not exceed 10 percent, but must vary from day to day.

b. A "Dud" must always be an operational aircraft, vessel, or vehicle. It is preferably an aircraft, vessel, or vehicle to be included later in the course. "Duds" add interest to the drill. Care must be taken to give credit to students who recognize "Duds," and who also give the correct designation.

106. NOTE ON OTHER DRILLS. Flash cards may be permanently arranged in separate drills or may be numbered and a record made of those selected for each drill. Model shadow drills must be arranged and rehearsed in advance. A simplified sketch of the angle of each model to be shown is acceptable. (See fig. 51.)

107. WORK SHEET. a. To assist in laying out drills, reviews, and tests, the instructor may prepare a work sheet similar to the one which follows. As the selection of material for each plane is completed for the entire course, proceed to the next plane, following the principles outlined in preceding paragraphs. The resulting drills may be "juggled" to provide appropriate numbers of views in each. The resulting chart discloses any lack of emphasis or undue emphasis on a particular object. As explained previously, model shadow drills must be planned on separate sheets.

b. The over-all plan for the use of training aids, as established by the work sheet, is now transferred to the daily lesson plan.

108. SUMMARY. Carefully planned and graded drills are the heart of recognition instruction. The necessary detail planning requires time, which is repaid in increased effectiveness of instruction. Appropriate commanders must insist that all drills are planned in accordance with the preceding principles. Obviously, alterations in emphasis and minor changes in the drills are indicated by the progress of the class.